swift-mirror/docs/SIL.rst

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Swift Intermediate Language (SIL)
=================================

.. contents::

Abstract
--------

SIL is an SSA-form IR with high-level semantic information designed to implement
the Swift programming language. SIL accommodates the following use cases:

- A set of guaranteed high-level optimizations that provide a predictable
  baseline for runtime and diagnostic behavior.
- Diagnostic dataflow analysis passes that enforce Swift language requirements,
  such as definitive initialization of variables and constructors, code
  reachability, switch coverage.
- High-level optimization passes, including retain/release optimization,
  dynamic method devirtualization, closure inlining, promoting heap allocations
  to stack allocations, promoting stack allocations to SSA registers, scalar
  replacement of aggregates (splitting aggregate allocations into multiple
  smaller allocations), and generic function instantiation.
- A stable distribution format that can be used to distribute "fragile"
  inlineable or generic code with Swift library modules, to be optimized into
  client binaries.

In contrast to LLVM IR, SIL is a generally target-independent format
representation that can be used for code distribution, but it can also express
target-specific concepts as well as LLVM can.

For more information on developing the implementation of SIL and SIL passes, see:

- `SILProgrammersManual.md <SILProgrammersManual.md>`_.
- `SILFunctionConventions.md <SILFunctionConventions.md>`_.
- `SILMemoryAccess.md <SILMemoryAccess.md>`_.

SIL in the Swift Compiler
-------------------------

At a high level, the Swift compiler follows a strict pipeline architecture:

- The *Parse* module constructs an AST from Swift source code.
- The *Sema* module type-checks the AST and annotates it with type information.
- The *SILGen* module generates *raw SIL* from an AST.
- A series of *Guaranteed Optimization Passes* and *Diagnostic Passes* are run
  over the raw SIL both to perform optimizations and to emit
  language-specific diagnostics.  These are always run, even at -Onone, and
  produce *canonical SIL*.
- General SIL *Optimization Passes* optionally run over the canonical SIL to
  improve performance of the resulting executable.  These are enabled and
  controlled by the optimization level and are not run at -Onone.
- *IRGen* lowers canonical SIL to LLVM IR.
- The LLVM backend (optionally) applies LLVM optimizations, runs the LLVM code
  generator and emits binary code.

The stages pertaining to SIL processing in particular are as follows:

SILGen
~~~~~~

SILGen produces *raw SIL* by walking a type-checked Swift AST.
The form of SIL emitted by SILGen has the following properties:

- Variables are represented by loading and storing mutable memory locations
  instead of being in strict SSA form. This is similar to the initial
  ``alloca``-heavy LLVM IR emitted by frontends such as Clang. However, Swift
  represents variables as reference-counted "boxes" in the most general case,
  which can be retained, released, and captured into closures.
- Dataflow requirements, such as definitive assignment, function returns,
  switch coverage (TBD), etc. have not yet been enforced.
- ``transparent`` function optimization has not yet been honored.

These properties are addressed by subsequent guaranteed optimization and
diagnostic passes which are always run against the raw SIL.

Guaranteed Optimization and Diagnostic Passes
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

After SILGen, a deterministic sequence of optimization passes is run over the
raw SIL. We do not want the diagnostics produced by the compiler to change as
the compiler evolves, so these passes are intended to be simple and
predictable.

- **Mandatory inlining** inlines calls to "transparent" functions.
- **Memory promotion** is implemented as two optimization phases, the first
  of which performs capture analysis to promote ``alloc_box`` instructions to
  ``alloc_stack``, and the second of which promotes non-address-exposed ``alloc_stack``
  instructions to SSA registers.
- **Constant propagation** folds constant expressions and propagates the constant values.
  If an arithmetic overflow occurs during the constant expression computation, a diagnostic
  is issued.
- **Return analysis** verifies that each function returns a value on every
  code path and doesn't "fall off the end" of its definition, which is an error.
  It also issues an error when a ``noreturn`` function returns.
- **Critical edge splitting** splits all critical edges from terminators that
  don't support arbitrary basic block arguments (all non cond_branch
  terminators).

If all diagnostic passes succeed, the final result is the
*canonical SIL* for the program.

TODO:

- Generic specialization
- Basic ARC optimization for acceptable performance at -Onone.

General Optimization Passes
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

SIL captures language-specific type information, making it possible to
perform high-level optimizations that are difficult to perform on LLVM
IR.

- **Generic Specialization** analyzes specialized calls to generic
  functions and generates new specialized version of the
  functions. Then it rewrites all specialized usages of the generic
  to a direct call of the appropriate specialized function.
- **Witness and VTable Devirtualization** for a given type looks up
  the associated method from a class's vtable or a type witness table
  and replaces the indirect virtual call with a call to the mapped
  function.
- **Performance Inlining**
- **Reference Counting Optimizations**
- **Memory Promotion/Optimizations**
- **High-level domain specific optimizations** The Swift compiler implements
  high-level optimizations on basic Swift containers such as Array or String.
  Domain specific optimizations require a defined interface between
  the standard library and the optimizer. More details can be found here:
  `HighLevelSILOptimizations <HighLevelSILOptimizations.rst>`_

Syntax
------

SIL is reliant on Swift's type system and declarations, so SIL syntax
is an extension of Swift's. A ``.sil`` file is a Swift source file
with added SIL definitions. The Swift source is parsed only for its
declarations; Swift ``func`` bodies (except for nested declarations)
and top-level code are ignored by the SIL parser. In a ``.sil`` file,
there are no implicit imports; the ``swift`` and/or ``Builtin``
standard modules must be imported explicitly if used.

Here is an example of a ``.sil`` file::

  sil_stage canonical

  import Swift

  // Define types used by the SIL function.

  struct Point {
    var x : Double
    var y : Double
  }

  class Button {
    func onClick()
    func onMouseDown()
    func onMouseUp()
  }

  // Declare a Swift function. The body is ignored by SIL.
  func taxicabNorm(_ a:Point) -> Double {
    return a.x + a.y
  }

  // Define a SIL function.
  // The name @_T5norms11taxicabNormfT1aV5norms5Point_Sd is the mangled name
  // of the taxicabNorm Swift function.
  sil @_T5norms11taxicabNormfT1aV5norms5Point_Sd : $(Point) -> Double {
  bb0(%0 : $Point):
    // func Swift.+(Double, Double) -> Double
    %1 = function_ref @_Tsoi1pfTSdSd_Sd
    %2 = struct_extract %0 : $Point, #Point.x
    %3 = struct_extract %0 : $Point, #Point.y
    %4 = apply %1(%2, %3) : $(Double, Double) -> Double
    return %4 : Double
  }

  // Define a SIL vtable. This matches dynamically-dispatched method
  // identifiers to their implementations for a known static class type.
  sil_vtable Button {
    #Button.onClick: @_TC5norms6Button7onClickfS0_FT_T_
    #Button.onMouseDown: @_TC5norms6Button11onMouseDownfS0_FT_T_
    #Button.onMouseUp: @_TC5norms6Button9onMouseUpfS0_FT_T_
  }

SIL Stage
~~~~~~~~~
::

  decl ::= sil-stage-decl
  sil-stage-decl ::= 'sil_stage' sil-stage

  sil-stage ::= 'raw'
  sil-stage ::= 'canonical'

There are different invariants on SIL depending on what stage of processing
has been applied to it.

* **Raw SIL** is the form produced by SILGen that has not been run through
  guaranteed optimizations or diagnostic passes. Raw SIL may not have a
  fully-constructed SSA graph. It may contain dataflow errors. Some instructions
  may be represented in non-canonical forms, such as ``assign`` and
  ``destroy_addr`` for non-address-only values. Raw SIL should not be used
  for native code generation or distribution.

* **Canonical SIL** is SIL as it exists after guaranteed optimizations and
  diagnostics. Dataflow errors must be eliminated, and certain instructions
  must be canonicalized to simpler forms. Performance optimization and native
  code generation are derived from this form, and a module can be distributed
  containing SIL in this (or later) forms.

SIL files declare the processing stage of the included SIL with one of the
declarations ``sil_stage raw`` or ``sil_stage canonical`` at top level. Only
one such declaration may appear in a file.

SIL Types
~~~~~~~~~
::

  sil-type ::= '$' '*'? generic-parameter-list? type

SIL types are introduced with the ``$`` sigil. SIL's type system is
closely related to Swift's, and so the type after the ``$`` is parsed
largely according to Swift's type grammar.

Type Lowering
`````````````

A *formal type* is the type of a value in Swift, such as an expression
result.  Swift's formal type system intentionally abstracts over a
large number of representational issues like ownership transfer
conventions and directness of arguments.  However, SIL aims to
represent most such implementation details, and so these differences
deserve to be reflected in the SIL type system.  *Type lowering* is
the process of turning a formal type into its *lowered type*.

It is important to be aware that the lowered type of a declaration
need not be the lowered type of the formal type of that declaration.
For example, the lowered type of a declaration reference:

- will usually be thin,

- may have a non-Swift calling convention,

- may use bridged types in its interface, and

- may use ownership conventions that differ from Swift's default
  conventions.

Abstraction Difference
``````````````````````

Generic functions working with values of unconstrained type must
generally work with them indirectly, e.g. by allocating sufficient
memory for them and then passing around pointers to that memory.
Consider a generic function like this:

::

  func generateArray<T>(n : Int, generator : () -> T) -> [T]

The function ``generator`` will be expected to store its result
indirectly into an address passed in an implicit parameter.  There's
really just no reasonable alternative when working with a value of
arbitrary type:

- We don't want to generate a different copy of ``generateArray`` for
  every type ``T``.

- We don't want to give every type in the language a common
  representation.

- We don't want to dynamically construct a call to ``generator``
  depending on the type ``T``.

But we also don't want the existence of the generic system to force
inefficiencies on non-generic code.  For example, we'd like a function
of type ``() -> Int`` to be able to return its result directly; and
yet, ``() -> Int`` is a valid substitution of ``() -> T``, and a
caller of ``generateArray<Int>`` should be able to pass an arbitrary
``() -> Int`` in as the generator.

Therefore, the representation of a formal type in a generic context
may differ from the representation of a substitution of that formal type.
We call such differences *abstraction differences*.

SIL's type system is designed to make abstraction differences always
result in differences between SIL types.  The goal is that a properly-
abstracted value should be correctly usable at any level of substitution.

In order to achieve this, the formal type of a generic entity should
always be lowered using the abstraction pattern of its unsubstituted
formal type.  For example, consider the following generic type:

::

  struct Generator<T> {
    var fn : () -> T
  }
  var intGen : Generator<Int>

``intGen.fn`` has the substituted formal type ``() -> Int``, which
would normally lower to the type ``@callee_owned () -> Int``, i.e.
returning its result directly.  But if that type is properly lowered
with the pattern of its unsubstituted type ``() -> T``, it becomes
``@callee_owned () -> @out Int``.

When a type is lowered using the abstraction pattern of an
unrestricted type, it is lowered as if the pattern were replaced with
a type sharing the same structure but replacing all materializable
types with fresh type variables.

For example, if ``g`` has type ``Generator<(Int, Int) -> Float>``, ``g.fn`` is
lowered using the pattern ``() -> T``, which eventually causes ``(Int, Int)
-> Float`` to be lowered using the pattern ``T``, which is the same as
lowering it with the pattern ``U -> V``; the result is that ``g.fn``
has the following lowered type::

  @callee_owned () -> @owned @callee_owned (@in (Int, Int)) -> @out Float.

As another example, suppose that ``h`` has type
``Generator<(Int, inout Int) -> Float>``.  Neither ``(Int, inout Int)``
nor ``inout Int`` are potential results of substitution because they
aren't materializable, so ``h.fn`` has the following lowered type::

  @callee_owned () -> @owned @callee_owned (@in Int, @inout Int) -> @out Float

This system has the property that abstraction patterns are preserved
through repeated substitutions.  That is, you can consider a lowered
type to encode an abstraction pattern; lowering ``T`` by ``R`` is
equivalent to lowering ``T`` by (``S`` lowered by ``R``).

SILGen has procedures for converting values between abstraction
patterns.

At present, only function and tuple types are changed by abstraction
differences.

Legal SIL Types
```````````````

The type of a value in SIL is either:

- an *object type* ``$T``, where ``T`` is a legal loadable type, or

- an *address type* ``$*T``, where ``T`` is a legal SIL type (loadable or
  address-only).

A type ``T`` is a *legal SIL type* if:

- it is a function type which satisfies the constraints (below) on
  function types in SIL,

- it is a metatype type which describes its representation,

- it is a tuple type whose element types are legal SIL types,

- it is ``Optional<U>``, where ``U`` is a legal SIL type,

- it is a legal Swift type that is not a function, tuple, optional,
  metatype, or l-value type, or

- it is a ``@box`` containing a legal SIL type.

Note that types in other recursive positions in the type grammar are
still formal types.  For example, the instance type of a metatype or
the type arguments of a generic type are still formal Swift types, not
lowered SIL types.

Address Types
`````````````

The *address of T* ``$*T`` is a pointer to memory containing a value
of any reference or value type ``$T``.  This can be an internal
pointer into a data structure. Addresses of loadable types can be
loaded and stored to access values of those types.

Addresses of address-only types (see below) can only be used with
instructions that manipulate their operands indirectly by address, such
as ``copy_addr`` or ``destroy_addr``, or as arguments to functions.
It is illegal to have a value of type ``$T`` if ``T`` is address-only.

Addresses are not reference-counted pointers like class values are. They
cannot be retained or released.

Address types are not *first-class*: they cannot appear in recursive
positions in type expressions.  For example, the type ``$**T`` is not
a legal type.

The address of an address cannot be directly taken. ``$**T`` is not a representable
type. Values of address type thus cannot be allocated, loaded, or stored
(though addresses can of course be loaded from and stored to).

Addresses can be passed as arguments to functions if the corresponding
parameter is indirect.  They cannot be returned.

Box Types
`````````

Captured local variables and the payloads of ``indirect`` value types are stored
on the heap. The type ``@box T`` is a reference-counted type that references
a box containing a mutable value of type ``T``. Boxes always use Swift-native
reference counting, so they can be queried for uniqueness and cast to the
``Builtin.NativeObject`` type.

Metatype Types
``````````````

A concrete or existential metatype in SIL must describe its representation.
This can be:

- ``@thin``, meaning that it requires no storage and thus necessarily
  represents an exact type (only allowed for concrete metatypes);

- ``@thick``, meaning that it stores a reference to a type or (if a
  concrete class) a subclass of that type; or

- ``@objc``, meaning that it stores a reference to a class type (or a
  subclass thereof) using an Objective-C class object representation
  rather than the native Swift type-object representation.

Function Types
``````````````

Function types in SIL are different from function types in Swift in a
number of ways:

- A SIL function type may be generic.  For example, accessing a
  generic function with ``function_ref`` will give a value of
  generic function type.

- A SIL function type may be declared ``@noescape``. This is required for any
  function type passed to a parameter not declared with ``@escaping``
  declaration modifier. ``@noescape`` function types may be either
  ``@convention(thin)`` or ``@callee_guaranteed``. They have an
  unowned context--the context's lifetime must be independently guaranteed.

- A SIL function type declares its conventional treatment of its
  context value:

  - If it is ``@convention(thin)``, the function requires no context value.
    Such types may also be declared ``@noescape``, which trivially has no effect
    passing the context value.

  - If it is ``@callee_guaranteed``, the context value is treated as a direct
    parameter. This implies ``@convention(thick)``. If the function type is also
    ``@noescape``, then the context value is unowned, otherwise it is
    guaranteed.

  - If it is ``@callee_owned``, the context value is treated as an owned direct
    parameter. This implies ``@convention(thick)`` and is mutually exclusive
    with ``@noescape``.

  - If it is ``@convention(block)``, the context value is treated as an unowned
    direct parameter.

  - Other function type conventions are described in ``Properties of Types`` and
    ``Calling Convention``.

- A SIL function type declares the conventions for its parameters.
  The parameters are written as an unlabeled tuple; the elements of that
  tuple must be legal SIL types, optionally decorated with one of the
  following convention attributes.

  The value of an indirect parameter has type ``*T``; the value of a
  direct parameter has type ``T``.

  - An ``@in`` parameter is indirect.  The address must be of an
    initialized object; the function is responsible for destroying
    the value held there.

  - An ``@inout`` parameter is indirect.  The address must be of an
    initialized object. The memory must remain initialized for the duration
    of the call until the function returns. The function may mutate the
    pointee, and furthermore may weakly assume that there are no aliasing
    reads from or writes to the argument, though must preserve a valid
    value at the argument so that well-ordered aliasing violations do not
    compromise memory safety. This allows for optimizations such as local
    load and store propagation, introduction or elimination of temporary
    copies, and promotion of the ``@inout`` parameter to an ``@owned`` direct
    parameter and result pair, but does not admit "take" optimization out
    of the parameter or other optimization that would leave memory in an
    uninitialized state.

  - An ``@inout_aliasable`` parameter is indirect. The address must be of an
    initialized object. The memory must remain initialized for the duration
    of the call until the function returns. The function may mutate the
    pointee, and must assume that other aliases may mutate it as well. These
    aliases however can be assumed to be well-typed and well-ordered; ill-typed
    accesses and data races to the parameter are still undefined.

  - An ``@owned`` parameter is an owned direct parameter.

  - A ``@guaranteed`` parameter is a guaranteed direct parameter.

  - An ``@in_guaranteed`` parameter is indirect.  The address must be of an
    initialized object; both the caller and callee promise not to mutate the
    pointee, allowing the callee to read it.

  - An ``@in_constant`` parameter is indirect.  The address must be of an
    initialized object; the function will treat the value held there as read-only.

  - A ``@pack_owned`` parameter is indirect.  The parameter must be of
    pack type and is always an address.  Whether the pack elements are
    direct values or addresses of values is encoded in the pack type.
    In either case, both the pack elements and their referenced storage
    (if they are addresses) must be initialized prior to the call.  The
    callee is responsible for destroying the values and is permitted to
    modify both the pack elements and their referenced storage.  The
    caller is not permitted to access either the pack or the referenced
    storage during the call.

  - A ``@pack_guaranteed`` parameter is indirect.  The parameter must
    be of pack type and is always an address.  Whether the pack elements
    are direct values or addresses of values is encoded in the pack type.
    In either case, both the pack elements and their referenced storage
    (if they are addresses) must be initialized prior to the call.
    Neither the callee nor the caller is permitted to modify or destroy
    the pack elements or their referenced storage during the call.

  - A ``@pack_inout`` parameter is indirect.  The parameter must be of
    pack type and is always an address.  The pack elements must also
    always be addresses.  The element addresses are set in the pack
    prior to the call, and the same addresses must be in the pack
    following the call, but the callee is permitted to modify the pack
    on a temporary basis if it wishes.  The referenced storage of
    each element address must be initialized prior to the call, and it
    must still be initialized after the call, but the callee may modify
    the value stored there and potentially even leave it temporarily
    uninitialized.  The caller is not permitted to access either the
    pack elements or their referenced storage during the call.

  - Otherwise, the parameter is an unowned direct parameter.

- A SIL function type declares the conventions for its results.
  The results are written as an unlabeled tuple; the elements of that
  tuple must be legal SIL types, optionally decorated with one of the
  following convention attributes.  Indirect and direct results may
  be interleaved.

  Indirect results correspond to implicit arguments of type ``*T`` in
  function entry blocks and in the arguments to ``apply`` and ``try_apply``
  instructions.  These arguments appear in the order in which they appear
  in the result list, always before any parameters.

  Direct results correspond to direct return values of type ``T``.  A
  SIL function type has a ``return type`` derived from its direct results
  in the following way: when there is a single direct result, the return
  type is the type of that result; otherwise, it is the tuple type of the
  types of all the direct results, in the order they appear in the results
  list.  The return type is the type of the operand of ``return``
  instructions, the type of ``apply`` instructions, and the type of
  the normal result of ``try_apply`` instructions.

  - An ``@out`` result is indirect.

    If the result type is not a pack type, then the address must be
    of an uninitialized object, and the callee is required to leave
    an initialized value there unless it terminates with a ``throw``
    or has a non-Swift calling convention.

    If the result type is a pack type, then the pack must contain
    addresses.  The addresses must be set in the pack prior to the
    call, and these same addresses must be in the pack after the call,
    but the callee may modify the pack elements on a temporary basis
    if it wishes.  The addresses must be of uninitialized objects,
    and the callee is require to initialize them unless it terminates
    with a ``throw`` or has a non-Swift calling convention.

  - An ``@owned`` result is an owned direct result.

  - An ``@autoreleased`` result is an autoreleased direct result.
    If there is an autoreleased result, it must be the only direct result.

  - Otherwise, the parameter is an unowned direct result.

A direct parameter, yield, or result of trivial type must always be
unowned.

A parameter or yield of pack type must always use one of the three
pack conventions.  A result of pack type must always be ``@out``.

An owned direct parameter or result is transferred to the recipient,
which becomes responsible for destroying the value. This means that
the value is passed at +1.

An unowned direct parameter or result is instantaneously valid at the
point of transfer.  The recipient does not need to worry about race
conditions immediately destroying the value, but should copy it
(e.g. by ``strong_retain``\ ing an object pointer) if the value will be
needed sooner rather than later.

A guaranteed direct parameter is like an unowned direct parameter
value, except that it is guaranteed by the caller to remain valid
throughout the execution of the call. This means that any
``strong_retain``, ``strong_release`` pairs in the callee on the
argument can be eliminated.

An autoreleased direct result must have a type with a retainable
pointer representation.  Autoreleased results are nominally transferred
at +0, but the runtime takes steps to ensure that a +1 can be safely
transferred, and those steps require precise code-layout control.
Accordingly, the SIL pattern for an autoreleased convention looks exactly
like the SIL pattern for an owned convention, and the extra runtime
instrumentation is inserted on both sides when the SIL is lowered into
LLVM IR.  An autoreleased ``apply`` of a function that is defined with
an autoreleased result has the effect of a +1 transfer of the result.
An autoreleased ``apply`` of a function that is not defined with
an autoreleased result has the effect of performing a strong retain in
the caller.  A non-autoreleased ``apply`` of a function that is defined
with an autoreleased result has the effect of performing an
autorelease in the callee.

- SIL function types may provide an optional error result, written by
  placing ``@error`` on a result.  An error result is always
  implicitly ``@owned``.  Only functions with a native calling
  convention may have an error result.

  A function with an error result cannot be called with ``apply``.
  It must be called with ``try_apply``.
  There is one exception to this rule: a function with an error result can be
  called with ``apply [nothrow]`` if the compiler can prove that the function
  does not actually throw.

  ``return`` produces a normal result of the function.  To return
  an error result, use ``throw``.

  Type lowering lowers the ``throws`` annotation on formal function
  types into more concrete error propagation:

  - For native Swift functions, ``throws`` is turned into an error
    result.

  - For non-native Swift functions, ``throws`` is turned in an
    explicit error-handling mechanism based on the imported API.  The
    importer only imports non-native methods and types as ``throws``
    when it is possible to do this automatically.

- SIL function types may provide a pattern signature and substitutions
  to express that values of the type use a particular generic abstraction
  pattern.  Both must be provided together.  If a pattern signature is
  present, the component types (parameters, yields, and results) must be
  expressed in terms of the generic parameters of that signature.
  The pattern substitutions should be expressed in terms of the generic
  parameters of the overall generic signature, if any, or else
  the enclosing generic context, if any.

  A pattern signature follows the ``@substituted`` attribute, which
  must be the final attribute preceding the function type.  Pattern
  substitutions follow the function type, preceded by the ``for``
  keyword.  For example::

    @substituted <T: Collection> (@in T) -> @out T.Element for Array<Int>

  The low-level representation of a value of this type may not match
  the representation of a value of the substituted-through version of it::

    (@in Array<Int>) -> @out Int

  Substitution differences at the outermost level of a function value
  may be adjusted using the ``convert_function`` instruction.  Note that
  this only works at the outermost level and not in nested positions.
  For example, a function which takes a parameter of the first type above
  cannot be converted by ``convert_function`` to a function which takes
  a parameter of the second type; such a conversion must be done with a
  thunk.

  Type substitution on a function type with a pattern signature and
  substitutions only substitutes into the substitutions; the component
  types are preserved with their exact original structure.

- In the implementation, a SIL function type may also carry substitutions
  for its generic signature.  This is a convenience for working with
  applied generic types and is not generally a formal part of the SIL
  language; in particular, values should not have such types.  Such a
  type behaves like a non-generic type, as if the substitutions were
  actually applied to the underlying function type.

Async Functions
```````````````

SIL function types may be ``@async``. ``@async`` functions run inside async
tasks, and can have explicit *suspend points* where they suspend execution.
``@async`` functions can only be called from other ``@async`` functions, but
otherwise can be invoked with the normal ``apply`` and ``try_apply``
instructions (or ``begin_apply`` if they are coroutines).

In Swift, the ``withUnsafeContinuation`` primitive is used to implement
primitive suspend points. In SIL, ``@async`` functions represent this
abstraction using the ``get_async_continuation[_addr]`` and
``await_async_continuation`` instructions. ``get_async_continuation[_addr]``
accesses a *continuation* value that can be used to resume the coroutine after
it suspends. The resulting continuation value can then be passed into a
completion handler, registered with an event loop, or scheduled by some other
mechanism. Operations on the continuation can resume the async function's
execution by passing a value back to the async function, or passing in an error
that propagates as an error in the async function's context.
The ``await_async_continuation`` instruction suspends execution of
the coroutine until the continuation is invoked to resume it.  A use of
``withUnsafeContinuation`` in Swift::

  func waitForCallback() async -> Int {
    return await withUnsafeContinuation { cc in
      registerCallback { cc.resume($0) }
    }
  }

might lower to the following SIL::

  sil @waitForCallback : $@convention(thin) @async () -> Int {
  entry:
    %cc = get_async_continuation $Int
    %closure = function_ref @waitForCallback_closure
      : $@convention(thin) (UnsafeContinuation<Int>) -> ()
    apply %closure(%cc)
    await_async_continuation %cc, resume resume_cc

  resume_cc(%result : $Int):
    return %result
  }

The closure may then be inlined into the ``waitForCallback`` function::

  sil @waitForCallback : $@convention(thin) @async () -> Int {
  entry:
    %cc = get_async_continuation $Int
    %registerCallback = function_ref @registerCallback
      : $@convention(thin) (@convention(thick) () -> ()) -> ()
    %callback_fn = function_ref @waitForCallback_callback
    %callback = partial_apply %callback_fn(%cc)
    apply %registerCallback(%callback)
    await_async_continuation %cc, resume resume_cc

  resume_cc(%result : $Int):
    return %result
  }

Every continuation value must be used exactly once to resume its associated
async coroutine once. It is undefined behavior to attempt to resume the same
continuation more than once. On the flip side, failing to resume a continuation
will leave the async task stuck in the suspended state, leaking any memory or
other resources it owns.

Coroutine Types
```````````````

A coroutine is a function which can suspend itself and return control to
its caller without terminating the function.  That is, it does not need to
obey a strict stack discipline. SIL coroutines have control flow that is
tightly integrated with their callers, and they pass information back and forth
between caller and callee in a structured way through yield points.
*Generalized accessors* and *generators* in Swift fit this description: a
``read`` or ``modify`` accessor coroutine projects a single value, yields
ownership of that one value temporarily to the caller, and then takes ownership
back when resumed, allowing the coroutine to clean up resources or otherwise
react to mutations done by the caller. *Generators* similarly yield a stream of
values one at a time to their caller, temporarily yielding ownership of each
value in turn to the caller. The tight coupling of the caller's control flow
with these coroutines allows the caller to *borrow* values produced by the
coroutine, where a normal function return would need to transfer ownership of
its return value, since a normal function's context ceases to exist and be able
to maintain ownership of the value after it returns.

To support these concepts, SIL supports two kinds of coroutine:
``@yield_many`` and ``@yield_once``. Either of these attributes may be
written before a function type to indicate that it is a coroutine type.
``@yield_many`` and ``@yield_once`` coroutines are allowed to also be
``@async``. (Note that ``@async`` functions are not themselves modeled
explicitly as coroutines in SIL, although the implementation may use a coroutine
lowering strategy.)

A coroutine type may declare any number of *yielded values*, which is to
say, values which are provided to the caller at a yield point.  Yielded
values are written in the result list of a function type, prefixed by
the ``@yields`` attribute.  A yielded value may have a convention attribute,
taken from the set of parameter attributes and interpreted as if the yield
site were calling back to the calling function.

Currently, a coroutine may not have normal results.

Coroutine functions may be used in many of the same ways as normal
function values.  However, they cannot be called with the standard
``apply`` or ``try_apply`` instructions.  A non-throwing yield-once
coroutine can be called with the ``begin_apply`` instruction.  There
is no support yet for calling a throwing yield-once coroutine or for
calling a yield-many coroutine of any kind.

Coroutines may contain the special ``yield`` and ``unwind``
instructions.

A ``@yield_many`` coroutine may yield as many times as it desires.
A ``@yield_once`` coroutine may yield exactly once before returning,
although it may also ``throw`` before reaching that point.

Variadic Generics
`````````````````

Swift's variadic generics feature introduces the concepts of pack
parameters, pack arguments, and pack expansions.  When these features
are used in formal types embedded in SIL, they follow the same rules
as they do in Swift.  However, in its own type system and operations,
SIL largely uses a different (if closely related) language model.

Pack types
""""""""""

In (current) Swift, packs only exist as parameters, either type
parameters or value parameters.  These parameters can then only
be used in pack expansions, which can only appear in certain
naturally-variadic positions, such as the elements list of a tuple
type or the arguments list of a call expression.  Formally,
substitution flattens these pack expansions into the surrounding
structure.

This language model poses similar problems for direct implementation
at runtime as many of Swift's other generics features.  Normal
compilation paths (without unportable assembly-level heroics) require
functions to take a fixed list of parameters.  Calling a generic
function with packs of different lengths cannot result in different
parameters being mapped to different registers (or positions in the
stack arguments area).  SIL must therefore organize pack expansions
in function parameters and results into *concrete* variadic packs
that can be passed with a fixed ABI.

SIL must also directly model *temporary* packs, not just pack
parameters.  After all, a pack parameter must be bound to something
concretely provided by the caller.

Packs are therefore something closer to a first-class type in the
SIL type system.  A pack type is written with the syntax
``Pack { ... }``.  By default, a pack type is *indirect*, meaning
that its elements are addresses.  SIL does not currently support
direct packs, but the description in this document tries to leave
room for them.

Pack types are always address-only and are always passed around by
address.  Values of pack type cannot be moved or copied except by
explicitly iterating over the pack elements.  They are allocated
and deallocated with special instructions.

Pack types are only allowed in two positions:
- at the top level of a type, e.g. ``%0 : $Pack{Int, Float}``
- as a parameter or result type of a function type, e.g.
  ``%fn : $@convention(thin) (@pack_in Pack{Int, Float}) -> ()``
Note in particular that they are not allowed in tuple types.  Pack
expansions in tuple types are still flattened into the surrounding
tuple structure like they are in Swift (unless the tuple is exploded,
as tuples normally are in function parameters or results).  There
are specific instructions for manipulating tuples with variadic
elements.

This explicit pack syntax can also be used to delimit type argument
packs in positions that expect formal types, such as the substitution
list of an ``apply`` instruction.  This is necessary because SIL
functions can be parameterized over multiple packs, and unlike in
Swift, the type arguments to such functions are explicit on calls.
If Swift ever gains syntax to delimit packs in type argument lists,
the SIL syntax will switch to use it.  Other features of SIL pack
types, such as direct-ness, are not allowed in these positions;
a formal pack type is purely a list of types and type expansions.

Pack expansions
"""""""""""""""

Pack expansions (``repeat``) are allowed in a reduced set of
situations in lowered types:
- the elements list of a tuple type
- the elements list of a pack type
Note in particular that pack expansions cannot appear in the
parameters list or results list of a lowered function type.  The
function type must traffic in packs explicitly.

If substitution into a lowered tuple type that is not a single unlabeled
element that is not a pack expansion would produce a tuple with a single
unlabeled element that is not a pack expansion, it actually produces that
element type.  Certain instructions must be rewritten to accommodate this
when cloned under substitution.

Opened pack element archetypes
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

SIL must be able to work directly with the element types of a pack
with statically unknown elements.  For example, it might need to move
each element of a pack into a tuple.  To do this, it must be able to
give a temporary name to the element type.  This type is called an
*opened pack element archetype*.  It is spelled like this:

::
  @pack_element("<uuid>") T

There must be an ``open_pack_element`` in the current SIL function with
the given UUID.  The name ``T`` must resolve to a pack parameter within
the generic signature of this instruction, and that pack parameter must
have the same shape class in the signature as the opened shape class
pack parameter.  The pack parameter is then translated to the
corresponding element archetype.

Opened pack element archetypes can appear in both formal and lowered types.
As with opened existential archetypes, the ``open_pack_element`` which
introduces an opened pack element archetype must dominate all uses of
the archetype.

The current SIL parser does not support references to opened element
archetypes prior to the ``open_pack_element`` instruction.  This can
occur when basic blocks are not in dominance order.  Fixing this will
likely require changes to the syntax, at least for forward references.

Properties of Types
```````````````````

SIL classifies types into additional subgroups based on ABI stability and
generic constraints:

- *Loadable types* are types with a fully exposed concrete representation:

  * Reference types
  * Builtin value types
  * Fragile struct types in which all element types are loadable
  * Tuple types in which all element types are loadable
  * Class protocol types
  * Archetypes constrained by a class protocol

  Values of loadable types are loaded and stored by loading and storing
  individual components of their representation. As a consequence:

    * values of loadable types can be loaded into SIL SSA values and stored
      from SSA values into memory without running any user-written code,
      although compiler-generated reference counting operations can happen.

    * values of loadable types can be take-initialized (moved between
      memory locations) with a bitwise copy.

  A *loadable aggregate type* is a tuple or struct type that is loadable.

  A *trivial type* is a loadable type with trivial value semantics.
  Values of trivial type can be loaded and stored without any retain or
  release operations and do not need to be destroyed.

- *Runtime-sized types* are restricted value types for which the compiler
  does not know the size of the type statically:

  * Resilient value types
  * Fragile struct or tuple types that contain resilient types as elements at
    any depth
  * Archetypes not constrained by a class protocol

- *Address-only types* are restricted value types which cannot be
  loaded or otherwise worked with as SSA values:

  * Runtime-sized types
  * Non-class protocol types
  * @weak types
  * Types that can't satisfy the requirements for being loadable because they
    care about the exact location of their value in memory and need to run some
    user-written code when they are copied or moved. Most commonly, types "care"
    about the addresses of values because addresses of values are registered in
    some global data structure, or because values may contain pointers into
    themselves.  For example:

    * Addresses of values of Swift ``@weak`` types are registered in a global
      table. That table needs to be adjusted when a ``@weak`` value is copied
      or moved to a new address.

    * A non-COW collection type with a heap allocation (like ``std::vector`` in
      C++) needs to allocate memory and copy the collection elements when the
      collection is copied.

    * A non-COW string type that implements a small string optimization (like
      many implementations of ``std::string`` in C++) can contain a pointer
      into the value itself. That pointer needs to be recomputed when the
      string is copied or moved.

  Values of address-only type ("address-only values") must reside in
  memory and can only be referenced in SIL by address. Addresses of
  address-only values cannot be loaded from or stored to. SIL provides
  special instructions for indirectly manipulating address-only
  values, such as ``copy_addr`` and ``destroy_addr``.

Some additional meaningful categories of type:

- A *heap object reference* type is a type whose representation consists of a
  single strong-reference-counted pointer. This includes all class types,
  the ``Builtin.NativeObject`` and ``AnyObject`` types, and
  archetypes that conform to one or more class protocols.
- A *reference type* is more general in that its low-level representation may
  include additional global pointers alongside a strong-reference-counted
  pointer. This includes all heap object reference types and adds
  thick function types and protocol/protocol composition types that conform to
  one or more class protocols. All reference types can be ``retain``-ed and
  ``release``-d. Reference types also have *ownership semantics* for their
  referenced heap object; see `Reference Counting`_ below.
- A type with *retainable pointer representation* is guaranteed to
  be compatible (in the C sense) with the Objective-C ``id`` type.
  The value at runtime may be ``nil``.  This includes classes,
  class metatypes, block functions, and class-bounded existentials with
  only Objective-C-compatible protocol constraints, as well as one
  level of ``Optional`` or ``ImplicitlyUnwrappedOptional`` applied to any of the
  above.  Types with retainable pointer representation can be returned
  via the ``@autoreleased`` return convention.

SILGen does not always map Swift function types one-to-one to SIL function
types. Function types are transformed in order to encode additional attributes:

- The **convention** of the function, indicated by the

  .. parsed-literal::

    @convention(*convention*)

  attribute. This is similar to the language-level ``@convention``
  attribute, though SIL extends the set of supported conventions with
  additional distinctions not exposed at the language level:

  - ``@convention(thin)`` indicates a "thin" function reference, which uses
    the Swift calling convention with no special "self" or "context" parameters.
  - ``@convention(thick)`` indicates a "thick" function reference, which
    uses the Swift calling convention and carries a reference-counted context
    object used to represent captures or other state required by the function.
    This attribute is implied by ``@callee_owned`` or ``@callee_guaranteed``.
  - ``@convention(block)`` indicates an Objective-C compatible block reference.
    The function value is represented as a reference to the block object,
    which is an ``id``-compatible Objective-C object that embeds its invocation
    function within the object. The invocation function uses the C calling
    convention.
  - ``@convention(c)`` indicates a C function reference. The function value
    carries no context and uses the C calling convention.
  - ``@convention(objc_method)`` indicates an Objective-C method implementation.
    The function uses the C calling convention, with the SIL-level ``self``
    parameter (by SIL convention mapped to the final formal parameter)
    mapped to the ``self`` and ``_cmd`` arguments of the implementation.
  - ``@convention(method)`` indicates a Swift instance method implementation.
    The function uses the Swift calling convention, using the special ``self``
    parameter.
  - ``@convention(witness_method)`` indicates a Swift protocol method
    implementation. The function's polymorphic convention is emitted in such
    a way as to guarantee that it is polymorphic across all possible
    implementors of the protocol.

Layout Compatible Types
```````````````````````

(This section applies only to Swift 1.0 and will hopefully be obviated in
future releases.)

SIL tries to be ignorant of the details of type layout, and low-level
bit-banging operations such as pointer casts are generally undefined. However,
as a concession to implementation convenience, some types are allowed to be
considered **layout compatible**. Type ``T`` is *layout compatible* with type
``U`` iff:

- an address of type ``$*U`` can be cast by
  ``address_to_pointer``/``pointer_to_address`` to ``$*T`` and a valid value
  of type ``T`` can be loaded out (or indirectly used, if ``T`` is address-
  only),
- if ``T`` is a nontrivial type, then ``retain_value``/``release_value`` of
  the loaded ``T`` value is equivalent to ``retain_value``/``release_value`` of
  the original ``U`` value.

This is not always a commutative relationship; ``T`` can be layout-compatible
with ``U`` whereas ``U`` is not layout-compatible with ``T``. If the layout
compatible relationship does extend both ways, ``T`` and ``U`` are
**commutatively layout compatible**. It is however always transitive; if ``T``
is layout-compatible with ``U`` and ``U`` is layout-compatible with ``V``, then
``T`` is layout-compatible with ``V``. All types are layout-compatible with
themselves.

The following types are considered layout-compatible:

- ``Builtin.RawPointer`` is commutatively layout compatible with all heap
  object reference types, and ``Optional`` of heap object reference types.
  (Note that ``RawPointer`` is a trivial type, so does not have ownership
  semantics.)
- ``Builtin.RawPointer`` is commutatively layout compatible with
  ``Builtin.Word``.
- Structs containing a single stored property are commutatively layout
  compatible with the type of that property.
- A heap object reference is commutatively layout compatible with any type
  that can correctly reference the heap object. For instance, given a class
  ``B`` and a derived class ``D`` inheriting from ``B``, a value of
  type ``B`` referencing an instance of type ``D`` is layout compatible with
  both ``B`` and ``D``, as well as ``Builtin.NativeObject`` and
  ``AnyObject``. It is not layout compatible with an unrelated class
  type ``E``.
- For payloaded enums, the payload type of the first payloaded case is
  layout-compatible with the enum (*not* commutatively).

Values and Operands
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
::

  sil-identifier ::= [A-Za-z_0-9]+
  sil-value-name ::= '%' sil-identifier
  sil-value ::= sil-value-name
  sil-value ::= 'undef'
  sil-operand ::= sil-value ':' sil-type

SIL values are introduced with the ``%`` sigil and named by an
alphanumeric identifier, which references the instruction or basic block
argument that produces the value.  SIL values may also refer to the keyword
'undef', which is a value of undefined contents.

Unlike LLVM IR, SIL instructions that take value operands *only* accept
value operands. References to literal constants, functions, global variables, or
other entities require specialized instructions such as ``integer_literal``,
``function_ref``, ``global_addr``, etc.

Functions
~~~~~~~~~
::

  decl ::= sil-function
  sil-function ::= 'sil' sil-linkage? sil-function-attribute+
                     sil-function-name ':' sil-type
                     '{' effects* sil-basic-block* '}'
  sil-function-name ::= '@' [A-Za-z_0-9]+

SIL functions are defined with the ``sil`` keyword. SIL function names
are introduced with the ``@`` sigil and named by an alphanumeric
identifier. This name will become the LLVM IR name for the function,
and is usually the mangled name of the originating Swift declaration.
The ``sil`` syntax declares the function's name and SIL type, and
defines the body of the function inside braces. The declared type must
be a function type, which may be generic.

If a function body does not contain atleast one ``sil-basic-block``, the
function is an external declaration.

Function Attributes
```````````````````
::

  sil-function-attribute ::= '[canonical]'

The function is in canonical SIL even if the module is still in raw SIL.
::

  sil-function-attribute ::= '[ossa]'

The function is in OSSA (ownership SSA) form.
::

  sil-function-attribute ::= '[transparent]'

Transparent functions are always inlined and don't keep their source
information when inlined.
::

  sil-function-attribute ::= '[' sil-function-thunk ']'
  sil-function-thunk ::= 'thunk'
  sil-function-thunk ::= 'signature_optimized_thunk'
  sil-function-thunk ::= 'reabstraction_thunk'

The function is a compiler generated thunk.
::

  sil-function-attribute ::= '[dynamically_replacable]'

The function can be replaced at runtime with a different implementation.
Optimizations must not assume anything about such a function, even if the SIL
of the function body is available.
::

  sil-function-attribute ::= '[dynamic_replacement_for' identifier ']'
  sil-function-attribute ::= '[objc_replacement_for' identifier ']'

Specifies for which function this function is a replacement.
::

  sil-function-attribute ::= '[exact_self_class]'

The function is a designated initializers, where it is known that the static
type being allocated is the type of the class that defines the designated
initializer.
::

  sil-function-attribute ::= '[without_actually_escaping]'

The function is a thunk for closures which are not actually escaping.
::

  sil-function-attribute ::= '[' sil-function-purpose ']'
  sil-function-purpose ::= 'global_init'

The implied semantics are:

 - side-effects can occur any time before the first invocation.
 - all calls to the same ``global_init`` function have the same side-effects.
 - any operation that may observe the initializer's side-effects must be
   preceded by a call to the initializer.

This is currently true if the function is an addressor that was lazily
generated from a global variable access. Note that the initialization
function itself does not need this attribute. It is private and only
called within the addressor.
::

  sil-function-purpose ::= 'lazy_getter'

The function is a getter of a lazy property for which the backing storage is
an ``Optional`` of the property's type. The getter contains a top-level
`switch_enum`_ (or `switch_enum_addr`_), which tests if the lazy property
is already computed. In the ``None``-case, the property is computed and stored
to the backing storage of the property.

After the first call of a lazy property getter, it is guaranteed that the
property is computed and consecutive calls always execute the ``Some``-case of
the top-level `switch_enum`_.
::

  sil-function-attribute ::= '[weak_imported]'

Cross-module references to this function should always use weak linking.
::

  sil-function-attribute ::= '[stack_protection]'

Stack protectors are inserted into this function to detect stack related
buffer overflows.
::

  sil-function-attribute ::= '[available' sil-version-tuple ']'
  sil-version-tuple ::= [0-9]+ ('.' [0-9]+)*

The minimal OS-version where the function is available.
::

  sil-function-attribute ::= '[' sil-function-inlining ']'
  sil-function-inlining ::= 'noinline'

The function is never inlined.
::

  sil-function-inlining ::= 'always_inline'

The function is always inlined.
::

  sil-function-attribute ::= '[' sil-function-optimization ']'
  sil-function-inlining ::= 'Onone'
  sil-function-inlining ::= 'Ospeed'
  sil-function-inlining ::= 'Osize'

The function is optimized according to this attribute, overriding the setting
from the command line.
::

  sil-function-attribute ::= '[' sil-function-effects ']'
  sil-function-effects ::= 'readonly'
  sil-function-effects ::= 'readnone'
  sil-function-effects ::= 'readwrite'
  sil-function-effects ::= 'releasenone'

The specified memory effects of the function.
::

  sil-function-attribute ::= '[_semantics "' [A-Za-z._0-9]+ '"]'

The specified high-level semantics of the function. The optimizer can use this
information to perform high-level optimizations before such functions are
inlined. For example, ``Array`` operations are annotated with semantic
attributes to let the optimizer perform redundant bounds check elimination and
similar optimizations.
::

  sil-function-attribute ::= '[_specialize "' [A-Za-z._0-9]+ '"]'

Specifies for which types specialized code should be generated.
::

  sil-function-attribute ::= '[clang "' identifier '"]'

The clang node owner.
::

  sil-function-attribute ::= '[' performance-constraint ']'
  performance-constraint :: 'no_locks'
  performance-constraint :: 'no_allocation'

Specifies the performance constraints for the function, which defines which type
of runtime functions are allowed to be called from the function.


Argument Effects
````````````````

The function effects, especially for function arguments. For details see the
documentation in ``SwiftCompilerSources/Sources/SIL/Effects.swift``.
::

  effects ::= '[' argument-name ':' argument-effect (',' argument-effect)*]'
  effects ::= '[' 'global' ':' global-effect (',' global-effect)*]'
  argument-name ::= '%' [0-9]+

  argument-effect ::= 'noescape' defined-effect? projection-path?
  argument-effect ::= 'escape' defined-effect? projection-path? '=>' arg-or-return  // exclusive escape
  argument-effect ::= 'escape' defined-effect? projection-path? '->' arg-or-return  // not-exclusive escape
  argument-effect ::= side-effect

  global-effect ::= 'traps'
  global-effect ::= 'allocates'
  global-effect ::= side-effect

  side-effect ::= 'read' projection-path?
  side-effect ::= 'write' projection-path?
  side-effect ::= 'copy' projection-path?
  side-effect ::= 'read' projection-path?

  arg-or-return ::= argument-name ('.' projection-path)?
  arg-or-return ::= '%r' ('.' projection-path)?
  defined-effect ::= '!'    // the effect is defined in the source code and not
                            // derived by the optimizer

  projection-path ::= path-component ('.' path-component)* 
  path-component ::= 's' [0-9]+        // struct field
  path-component ::= 'c' [0-9]+        // class field
  path-component ::= 'ct'              // class tail element
  path-component ::= 'e' [0-9]+        // enum case
  path-component ::= [0-9]+            // tuple element
  path-component ::= 'v**'             // any value fields
  path-component ::= 'c*'              // any class field
  path-component ::= '**'              // anything

Basic Blocks
~~~~~~~~~~~~
::

  sil-basic-block ::= sil-label sil-instruction-def* sil-terminator
  sil-label ::= sil-identifier ('(' sil-argument (',' sil-argument)* ')')? ':'
  sil-value-ownership-kind ::= @owned
  sil-value-ownership-kind ::= @guaranteed
  sil-value-ownership-kind ::= @unowned
  sil-argument ::= sil-value-name ':' sil-value-ownership-kind? sil-type

  sil-instruction-result ::= sil-value-name
  sil-instruction-result ::= '(' (sil-value-name (',' sil-value-name)*)? ')'
  sil-instruction-source-info ::= (',' sil-scope-ref)? (',' sil-loc)?
  sil-instruction-def ::=
    (sil-instruction-result '=')? sil-instruction sil-instruction-source-info

A function body consists of one or more basic blocks that correspond
to the nodes of the function's control flow graph. Each basic block
contains one or more instructions and ends with a terminator
instruction. The function's entry point is always the first basic
block in its body.

In SIL, basic blocks take arguments, which are used as an alternative to LLVM's
phi nodes. Basic block arguments are bound by the branch from the predecessor
block::

  sil @iif : $(Builtin.Int1, Builtin.Int64, Builtin.Int64) -> Builtin.Int64 {
  bb0(%cond : $Builtin.Int1, %ifTrue : $Builtin.Int64, %ifFalse : $Builtin.Int64):
    cond_br %cond : $Builtin.Int1, then, else
  then:
    br finish(%ifTrue : $Builtin.Int64)
  else:
    br finish(%ifFalse : $Builtin.Int64)
  finish(%result : $Builtin.Int64):
    return %result : $Builtin.Int64
  }

Arguments to the entry point basic block, which has no predecessor,
are bound by the function's caller::

  sil @foo : $@convention(thin) (Int) -> Int {
  bb0(%x : $Int):
    return %x : $Int
  }

  sil @bar : $@convention(thin) (Int, Int) -> () {
  bb0(%x : $Int, %y : $Int):
    %foo = function_ref @foo
    %1 = apply %foo(%x) : $(Int) -> Int
    %2 = apply %foo(%y) : $(Int) -> Int
    %3 = tuple ()
    return %3 : $()
  }

When a function is in Ownership SSA, arguments additionally have an explicit
annotated convention that describe the ownership semantics of the argument
value::

  sil [ossa] @baz : $@convention(thin) (Int, @owned String, @guaranteed String, @unowned String) -> () {
  bb0(%x : $Int, %y : @owned $String, %z : @guaranteed $String, %w : @unowned $String):
    ...
  }

Note that the first argument (``%x``) has an implicit ownership kind of
``@none`` since all trivial values have ``@none`` ownership.

Debug Information
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
::

  sil-scope-ref ::= 'scope' [0-9]+
  sil-scope ::= 'sil_scope' [0-9]+ '{'
                   sil-loc
                   'parent' scope-parent
                   ('inlined_at' sil-scope-ref)?
                '}'
  scope-parent ::= sil-function-name ':' sil-type
  scope-parent ::= sil-scope-ref
  sil-loc ::= 'loc' string-literal ':' [0-9]+ ':' [0-9]+

Each instruction may have a debug location and a SIL scope reference
at the end.  Debug locations consist of a filename, a line number, and
a column number.  If the debug location is omitted, it defaults to the
location in the SIL source file.  SIL scopes describe the position
inside the lexical scope structure that the Swift expression a SIL
instruction was generated from had originally. SIL scopes also hold
inlining information.


Declaration References
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
::

  sil-decl-ref ::= '#' sil-identifier ('.' sil-identifier)* sil-decl-subref?
  sil-decl-subref ::= '!' sil-decl-subref-part ('.' sil-decl-lang)? ('.' sil-decl-autodiff)?
  sil-decl-subref ::= '!' sil-decl-lang
  sil-decl-subref ::= '!' sil-decl-autodiff
  sil-decl-subref-part ::= 'getter'
  sil-decl-subref-part ::= 'setter'
  sil-decl-subref-part ::= 'allocator'
  sil-decl-subref-part ::= 'initializer'
  sil-decl-subref-part ::= 'enumelt'
  sil-decl-subref-part ::= 'destroyer'
  sil-decl-subref-part ::= 'deallocator'
  sil-decl-subref-part ::= 'globalaccessor'
  sil-decl-subref-part ::= 'ivardestroyer'
  sil-decl-subref-part ::= 'ivarinitializer'
  sil-decl-subref-part ::= 'defaultarg' '.' [0-9]+
  sil-decl-lang ::= 'foreign'
  sil-decl-autodiff ::= sil-decl-autodiff-kind '.' sil-decl-autodiff-indices
  sil-decl-autodiff-kind ::= 'jvp'
  sil-decl-autodiff-kind ::= 'vjp'
  sil-decl-autodiff-indices ::= [SU]+

Some SIL instructions need to reference Swift declarations directly. These
references are introduced with the ``#`` sigil followed by the fully qualified
name of the Swift declaration. Some Swift declarations are
decomposed into multiple entities at the SIL level. These are distinguished by
following the qualified name with ``!`` and one or more ``.``-separated component
entity discriminators:

- ``getter``: the getter function for a ``var`` declaration
- ``setter``:  the setter function for a ``var`` declaration
- ``allocator``: a ``struct`` or ``enum`` constructor, or a ``class``\ 's *allocating constructor*
- ``initializer``: a ``class``\ 's *initializing constructor*
- ``enumelt``: a member of a ``enum`` type.
- ``destroyer``: a class's destroying destructor
- ``deallocator``: a class's deallocating destructor
- ``globalaccessor``: the addressor function for a global variable
- ``ivardestroyer``: a class's ivar destroyer
- ``ivarinitializer``: a class's ivar initializer
- ``defaultarg.``\ *n*: the default argument-generating function for
  the *n*\ -th argument of a Swift ``func``
- ``foreign``: a specific entry point for C/Objective-C interoperability

Linkage
~~~~~~~
::

  sil-linkage ::= 'public'
  sil-linkage ::= 'hidden'
  sil-linkage ::= 'shared'
  sil-linkage ::= 'private'
  sil-linkage ::= 'public_external'
  sil-linkage ::= 'hidden_external'
  sil-linkage ::= 'non_abi'

A linkage specifier controls the situations in which two objects in
different SIL modules are *linked*, i.e. treated as the same object.

A linkage is *external* if it ends with the suffix ``external``.  An
object must be a definition if its linkage is not external.

All functions, global variables, and witness tables have linkage.
The default linkage of a definition is ``public``.  The default linkage of a
declaration is ``public_external``.  (These may eventually change to ``hidden``
and ``hidden_external``, respectively.)

On a global variable, an external linkage is what indicates that the
variable is not a definition.  A variable lacking an explicit linkage
specifier is presumed a definition (and thus gets the default linkage
for definitions, ``public``.)

Definition of the *linked* relation
```````````````````````````````````

Two objects are linked if they have the same name and are mutually
visible:

  - An object with ``public`` or ``public_external`` linkage is always
    visible.

  - An object with ``hidden``, ``hidden_external``, or ``shared``
    linkage is visible only to objects in the same Swift module.

  - An object with ``private`` linkage is visible only to objects in
    the same SIL module.

Note that the *linked* relationship is an equivalence relation: it is
reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.

Requirements on linked objects
``````````````````````````````

If two objects are linked, they must have the same type.

If two objects are linked, they must have the same linkage, except:

  - A ``public`` object may be linked to a ``public_external`` object.

  - A ``hidden`` object may be linked to a ``hidden_external`` object.

If two objects are linked, at most one may be a definition, unless:

  - both objects have ``shared`` linkage or

  - at least one of the objects has an external linkage.

If two objects are linked, and both are definitions, then the
definitions must be semantically equivalent.  This equivalence may
exist only on the level of user-visible semantics of well-defined
code; it should not be taken to guarantee that the linked definitions
are exactly operationally equivalent.  For example, one definition of
a function might copy a value out of an address parameter, while
another may have had an analysis applied to prove that said value is
not needed.

If an object has any uses, then it must be linked to a definition
with non-external linkage.

Public non-ABI linkage
``````````````````````

The `non_abi` linkage is a special linkage used for definitions which
only exist in serialized SIL, and do not define visible symbols in the
object file.

A definition with `non_abi` linkage behaves like it has `shared` linkage,
except that it must be serialized in the SIL module even if not referenced
from anywhere else in the module. For example, this means it is considered
a root for dead function elimination.

When a `non_abi` definition is deserialized, it will have `shared_external`
linkage.

There is no `non_abi_external` linkage. Instead, when referencing a
`non_abi` declaration that is defined in a different translation unit from
the same Swift module, you must use `hidden_external` linkage.

Summary
```````

  - ``public`` definitions are unique and visible everywhere in the
    program.  In LLVM IR, they will be emitted with ``external``
    linkage and ``default`` visibility.

  - ``hidden`` definitions are unique and visible only within the
    current Swift module.  In LLVM IR, they will be emitted with
    ``external`` linkage and ``hidden`` visibility.

  - ``private`` definitions are unique and visible only within the
    current SIL module.  In LLVM IR, they will be emitted with
    ``private`` linkage.

  - ``shared`` definitions are visible only within the current Swift
    module.  They can be linked only with other ``shared``
    definitions, which must be equivalent; therefore, they only need
    to be emitted if actually used.  In LLVM IR, they will be emitted
    with ``linkonce_odr`` linkage and ``hidden`` visibility.

  - ``public_external`` and ``hidden_external`` objects always have
    visible definitions somewhere else.  If this object nonetheless
    has a definition, it's only for the benefit of optimization or
    analysis.  In LLVM IR, declarations will have ``external`` linkage
    and definitions (if actually emitted as definitions) will have
    ``available_externally`` linkage.


VTables
~~~~~~~
::

  decl ::= sil-vtable
  sil-vtable ::= 'sil_vtable' identifier '{' sil-vtable-entry* '}'

  sil-vtable-entry ::= sil-decl-ref ':' sil-linkage? sil-function-name

SIL represents dynamic dispatch for class methods using the `class_method`_,
`super_method`_, `objc_method`_, and `objc_super_method`_ instructions.

The potential destinations for `class_method`_ and `super_method`_ are
tracked in ``sil_vtable`` declarations for every class type. The declaration
contains a mapping from every method of the class (including those inherited
from its base class) to the SIL function that implements the method for that
class::

  class A {
    func foo()
    func bar()
    func bas()
  }

  sil @A_foo : $@convention(thin) (@owned A) -> ()
  sil @A_bar : $@convention(thin) (@owned A) -> ()
  sil @A_bas : $@convention(thin) (@owned A) -> ()

  sil_vtable A {
    #A.foo: @A_foo
    #A.bar: @A_bar
    #A.bas: @A_bas
  }

  class B : A {
    func bar()
  }

  sil @B_bar : $@convention(thin) (@owned B) -> ()

  sil_vtable B {
    #A.foo: @A_foo
    #A.bar: @B_bar
    #A.bas: @A_bas
  }

  class C : B {
    func bas()
  }

  sil @C_bas : $@convention(thin) (@owned C) -> ()

  sil_vtable C {
    #A.foo: @A_foo
    #A.bar: @B_bar
    #A.bas: @C_bas
  }

Note that the declaration reference in the vtable is to the least-derived method
visible through that class (in the example above, ``B``'s vtable references
``A.bar`` and not ``B.bar``, and ``C``'s vtable references ``A.bas`` and not
``C.bas``). The Swift AST maintains override relationships between declarations
that can be used to look up overridden methods in the SIL vtable for a derived
class (such as ``C.bas`` in ``C``'s vtable).

In case the SIL function is a thunk, the function name is preceded with the
linkage of the original implementing function.

Witness Tables
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
::

  decl ::= sil-witness-table
  sil-witness-table ::= 'sil_witness_table' sil-linkage?
                        normal-protocol-conformance '{' sil-witness-entry* '}'

SIL encodes the information needed for dynamic dispatch of generic types into
witness tables. This information is used to produce runtime dispatch tables when
generating binary code. It can also be used by SIL optimizations to specialize
generic functions. A witness table is emitted for every declared explicit
conformance. Generic types share one generic witness table for all of their
instances. Derived classes inherit the witness tables of their base class.

::

  protocol-conformance ::= normal-protocol-conformance
  protocol-conformance ::= 'inherit' '(' protocol-conformance ')'
  protocol-conformance ::= 'specialize' '<' substitution* '>'
                           '(' protocol-conformance ')'
  protocol-conformance ::= 'dependent'
  normal-protocol-conformance ::= identifier ':' identifier 'module' identifier

Witness tables are keyed by *protocol conformance*, which is a unique identifier
for a concrete type's conformance to a protocol.

- A *normal protocol conformance* names a (potentially unbound generic) type,
  the protocol it conforms to, and the module in which the type or extension
  declaration that provides the conformance appears. These correspond 1:1 to
  protocol conformance declarations in the source code.
- If a derived class conforms to a protocol through inheritance from its base
  class, this is represented by an *inherited protocol conformance*, which
  simply references the protocol conformance for the base class.
- If an instance of a generic type conforms to a protocol, it does so with a
  *specialized conformance*, which provides the generic parameter bindings
  to the normal conformance, which should be for a generic type.

Witness tables are only directly associated with normal conformances.
Inherited and specialized conformances indirectly reference the witness table of
the underlying normal conformance.

::

  sil-witness-entry ::= 'base_protocol' identifier ':' protocol-conformance
  sil-witness-entry ::= 'method' sil-decl-ref ':' sil-function-name
  sil-witness-entry ::= 'associated_type' identifier
  sil-witness-entry ::= 'associated_type_protocol'
                        '(' identifier ':' identifier ')' ':' protocol-conformance

Witness tables consist of the following entries:

- *Base protocol entries* provide references to the protocol conformances that
  satisfy the witnessed protocols' inherited protocols.
- *Method entries* map a method requirement of the protocol to a SIL function
  that implements that method for the witness type. One method entry must exist
  for every required method of the witnessed protocol.
- *Associated type entries* map an associated type requirement of the protocol
  to the type that satisfies that requirement for the witness type. Note that
  the witness type is a source-level Swift type and not a SIL type. One
  associated type entry must exist for every required associated type of the
  witnessed protocol.
- *Associated type protocol entries* map a protocol requirement on an associated
  type to the protocol conformance that satisfies that requirement for the
  associated type.

Default Witness Tables
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
::

  decl ::= sil-default-witness-table
  sil-default-witness-table ::= 'sil_default_witness_table'
                                identifier minimum-witness-table-size
                                '{' sil-default-witness-entry* '}'
  minimum-witness-table-size ::= integer

SIL encodes requirements with resilient default implementations in a default
witness table. We say a requirement has a resilient default implementation if
the following conditions hold:

- The requirement has a default implementation
- The requirement is either the last requirement in the protocol, or all
  subsequent requirements also have resilient default implementations

The set of requirements with resilient default implementations is stored in
protocol metadata.

The minimum witness table size is the size of the witness table, in words,
not including any requirements with resilient default implementations.

Any conforming witness table must have a size between the minimum size, and
the maximum size, which is equal to the minimum size plus the number of
default requirements.

At load time, if the runtime encounters a witness table with fewer than the
maximum number of witnesses, the witness table is copied, with default
witnesses copied in. This ensures that callers can always expect to find
the correct number of requirements in each witness table, and new
requirements can be added by the framework author, without breaking client
code, as long as the new requirements have resilient default implementations.

Default witness tables are keyed by the protocol itself. Only protocols with
public visibility need a default witness table; private and internal protocols
are never seen outside the module, therefore there are no resilience issues
with adding new requirements.

::

  sil-default-witness-entry ::= 'method' sil-decl-ref ':' sil-function-name

Default witness tables currently contain only one type of entry:

- *Method entries* map a method requirement of the protocol to a SIL function
  that implements that method in a manner suitable for all witness types.

Global Variables
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
::

  decl ::= sil-global-variable
  static-initializer ::= '=' '{' sil-instruction-def* '}'
  sil-global-variable ::= 'sil_global' sil-linkage identifier ':' sil-type
                             (static-initializer)?

SIL representation of a global variable.

Global variable access is performed by the ``alloc_global``, ``global_addr``
and ``global_value`` instructions.

A global can have a static initializer if its initial value can be
composed of literals. The static initializer is represented as a list of
literal and aggregate instructions where the last instruction is the top-level
value of the static initializer::

  sil_global hidden @$S4test3varSiv : $Int {
    %0 = integer_literal $Builtin.Int64, 27
    %initval = struct $Int (%0 : $Builtin.Int64)
  }

If a global does not have a static initializer, the ``alloc_global``
instruction must be performed prior an access to initialize the storage.
Once a global's storage has been initialized, ``global_addr`` is used to
project the value.

If the last instruction in the static initializer is an ``object`` instruction
the global variable is a statically initialized object. In this case the
variable cannot be used as l-value, i.e. the reference to the object cannot be
modified. As a consequence the variable cannot be accessed with ``global_addr``
but only with ``global_value``.

Differentiability Witnesses
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
::

  decl ::= sil-differentiability-witness
  sil-differentiability-witness ::=
      'sil_differentiability_witness'
      sil-linkage?
      '[' differentiability-kind ']'
      '[' 'parameters' sil-differentiability-witness-function-index-list ']'
      '[' 'results' sil-differentiability-witness-function-index-list ']'
      generic-parameter-clause?
      sil-function-name ':' sil-type
      sil-differentiability-witness-body?

  differentiability-kind ::= 'forward' | 'reverse' | 'normal' | 'linear'

  sil-differentiability-witness-body ::=
      '{' sil-differentiability-witness-entry?
          sil-differentiability-witness-entry? '}'

  sil-differentiability-witness-entry ::=
      sil-differentiability-witness-entry-kind ':'
      sil-entry-name ':' sil-type

  sil-differentiability-witness-entry-kind ::= 'jvp' | 'vjp'

SIL encodes function differentiability via differentiability witnesses.

Differentiability witnesses map a "key" (including an "original" SIL function)
to derivative SIL functions.

Differentiability witnesses are keyed by the following:

- An "original" SIL function name.
- Differentiability parameter indices.
- Differentiability result indices.
- A generic parameter clause, representing differentiability generic
  requirements.

Differentiability witnesses may have a body, specifying derivative functions for
the key. Verification checks that derivative functions have the expected type
based on the key.

::

  sil_differentiability_witness hidden [normal] [parameters 0] [results 0] <T where T : Differentiable> @id : $@convention(thin) (T) -> T {
    jvp: @id_jvp : $@convention(thin) (T) -> (T, @owned @callee_guaranteed (T.TangentVector) -> T.TangentVector)
    vjp: @id_vjp : $@convention(thin) (T) -> (T, @owned @callee_guaranteed (T.TangentVector) -> T.TangentVector)
  }

During SILGen, differentiability witnesses are emitted for the following:

- `@differentiable` declaration attributes.
- `@derivative` declaration attributes. Registered derivative functions
  become differentiability witness entries.

The SIL differentiation transform canonicalizes differentiability witnesses,
filling in missing entries.

Differentiability witness entries are accessed via the
`differentiability_witness_function` instruction.

Dataflow Errors
---------------

*Dataflow errors* may exist in raw SIL. Swift's semantics defines these
conditions as errors, so they must be diagnosed by diagnostic
passes and must not exist in canonical SIL.

Definitive Initialization
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Swift requires that all local variables be initialized before use. In
constructors, all instance variables of a struct, enum, or class type must
be initialized before the object is used and before the constructor is returned
from.

Unreachable Control Flow
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

The ``unreachable`` terminator is emitted in raw SIL to mark incorrect control
flow, such as a non-``Void`` function failing to ``return`` a value, or a
``switch`` statement failing to cover all possible values of its subject.
The guaranteed dead code elimination pass can eliminate truly unreachable
basic blocks, or ``unreachable`` instructions may be dominated by applications
of functions returning uninhabited types. An ``unreachable`` instruction that
survives guaranteed DCE and is not immediately preceded by a no-return
application is a dataflow error.

Ownership SSA
-------------

A SILFunction marked with the ``[ossa]`` function attribute is considered to be
in Ownership SSA form. Ownership SSA is an augmented version of SSA that
enforces ownership invariants by imbuing value-operand edges with semantic
ownership information. All SIL values are assigned a constant ownership kind
that defines the ownership semantics that the value models. All SIL operands
that use a SIL value are required to be able to be semantically partitioned in
between "non-lifetime ending uses" that just require the value to be live and
"lifetime ending uses" that end the lifetime of the value and after which the
value can no longer be used. Since by definition operands that are lifetime
ending uses end their associated value's lifetime, we must have that, ignoring
program ending `Dead End Blocks`_, the lifetime ending use points jointly
post-dominate all non-lifetime ending use points and that a value must have
exactly one lifetime ending use along all reachable program paths, preventing
leaks and use-after-frees. As an example, consider the following SIL example
with partitioned defs/uses annotated inline::

  sil @stash_and_cast : $@convention(thin) (@owned Klass) -> @owned SuperKlass {
  bb0(%kls1 : @owned $Klass): // Definition of %kls1

    // "Normal Use" kls1.
    // Definition of %kls2.
    %kls2 = copy_value %kls1 : $Klass

    // "Consuming Use" of %kls2 to store it into a global. Stores in ossa are
    // consuming since memory is generally assumed to have "owned"
    // semantics. After this instruction executes, we can no longer use %kls2
    // without triggering an ownership violation.
    store %kls2 to [init] %globalMem : $*Klass

    // "Consuming Use" of %kls1.
    // Definition of %kls1Casted.
    %kls1Casted = upcast %kls1 : $Klass to $SuperKlass

    // "Consuming Use" of %kls1Casted
    return %kls1Casted : $SuperKlass
  }

Notice how every value in the SIL above has a partitionable set of uses with
normal uses always before consuming uses. Any such violations of ownership
semantics would trigger a SILVerifier error allowing us to know that we
do not have any leaks or use-after-frees in the above code.

Ownership Kind
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

The semantics in the previous example is of just one form of ownership semantics
supported: "owned" semantics. In SIL, we map these "ownership semantics" into a
form that a compiler can reason about by mapping semantics onto a lattice with
the following elements: `None`_, `Owned`_, `Guaranteed`_, `Unowned`_, `Any`. We
call this the lattice of "Ownership Kinds" and each individual value an
"Ownership Kind". This lattice is defined as a 3-level lattice with::

  1. None being Top.
  2. Any being Bottom.
  3. All non-Any, non-None OwnershipKinds being defined as a mid-level elements of the lattice

We can graphically represent the lattice via a diagram like the following::

                +------+
      +-------- | None | ---------+
      |         +------+          |
      |            |              |
      v            v              v         ^
  +-------+  +-----+------+  +---------+    |
  | Owned |  | Guaranteed |  | Unowned |    +--- Value Ownership Kinds and
  +-------+  +-----+------+  +---------+         Ownership Constraints
      |            |              |
      |            v              |         +--- Only Ownership Constraints
      |         +-----+           |         |
      +-------->| Any |<----------+         v
                +-----+

One moves down the lattice by performing a "meet" operation::

  None meet OtherOwnershipKind -> OtherOwnershipKind
  Unowned meet Owned -> Any
  Owned meet Guaranteed -> Any

and one moves up the lattice by performing a "join" operation, e.x.::

  Any join OtherOwnershipKind -> OtherOwnershipKind
  Owned join Any -> Owned
  Owned join Guaranteed -> None

This lattice is applied to SIL by requiring well formed SIL to:

1. Define a map of each SIL value to a constant OwnershipKind that classify the
   semantics that the SIL value obeys. This ownership kind may be static (i.e.:
   the same for all instances of an instruction) or dynamic (e.x.: forwarding
   instructions set their ownership upon construction). We call this subset of
   OwnershipKind to be the set of `Value Ownership Kind`_: `None`_, `Unowned`_,
   `Guaranteed`_, `Owned`_ (note conspicuously missing `Any`). This is because
   in our model `Any` represents an unknown ownership semantics and since our
   model is strict, we do not allow for values to have unknown ownership.

2. Define a map from each operand of a SILInstruction, `i`, to a constant
   Ownership Kind, Boolean pair called the operand's `Ownership
   Constraint`_. The Ownership Kind element of the `Ownership Constraint`_
   determines semantically which ownership kind's the operand's value can take
   on. The Boolean value is used to know if an operand will end the lifetime of
   the incoming value when checking dataflow rules. The dataflow rules that each
   `Value Ownership Kind`_ obeys is documented for each `Value Ownership Kind`_
   in its detailed description below.

Then we take these two maps and require that valid SIL has the property that
given an operand, ``op(i)`` of an instruction ``i`` and a value ``v`` that
``op(i)`` can only use ``v`` if the ``join`` of
``OwnershipConstraint(operand(i))`` with ``ValueOwnershipKind(v)`` is equal to
the ``ValueOwnershipKind`` of ``v``. In symbols, we must have that::

  join : (OwnershipConstraint, ValueOwnershipKind) -> ValueOwnershipKind
  OwnershipConstraint(operand(i)) join ValueOwnershipKind(v) = ValueOwnershipKind(v)

In words, a value can be passed to an operand if applying the operand's
ownership constraint to the value's ownership does not change the value's
ownership. Operationally this has a few interesting effects on SIL:

1. We have defined away invalid value-operand (aka def-use) pairing since the
   SILVerifier validates the aforementioned relationship on all SIL values,
   uses at all points of the pipeline until ossa is lowered.

2. Many SIL instructions do not care about the ownership kind that their value
   will take. They can just define all of their operand's as having an
   ownership constraint of Any.

Now lets go into more depth upon `Value Ownership Kind`_ and `Ownership Constraint`_.

Value Ownership Kind
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

As mentioned above, each SIL value is statically mapped to an `Ownership Kind`_
called the value's "ValueOwnershipKind" that classify the semantics of the
value. Below, we map each ValueOwnershipKind to a short summary of the semantics
implied upon the parent value:

* **None**. This is used to represent values that do not require memory
  management and are outside of Ownership SSA invariants. Examples: trivial
  values (e.x.: Int, Float), non-payloaded cases of non-trivial enums (e.x.:
  Optional<T>.none), all address types.

* **Owned**. A value that exists independently of any other value and is
  consumed exactly once along all paths through a function by either a
  destroy_value (actually destroying the value) or by a consuming instruction
  that rebinds the value in some manner (e.x.: apply, casts, store).

* **Guaranteed**. A value with a scoped lifetime whose liveness is dependent on
  the lifetime of some other "base" owned or guaranteed value. Consumed by
  instructions like `end_borrow`_. The "base" value is statically guaranteed to
  be live at all of the value's paired end_borrow instructions.

* **Unowned**. A value that is only guaranteed to be instantaneously valid and
  must be copied before the value is used in an ``@owned`` or ``@guaranteed``
  context. This is needed both to model argument values with the ObjC unsafe
  unowned argument convention and also to model the ownership resulting from
  bitcasting a trivial type to a non-trivial type. This value should never be
  consumed.

We describe each of these semantics in below in more detail.

Owned
`````

Owned ownership models "move only" values. We require that each such value is
consumed exactly once along all program paths. The IR verifier will flag values
that are not consumed along a path as a leak and any double consumes as
use-after-frees. We model move operations via `forwarding uses`_ such as casts
and transforming terminators (e.x.: `switch_enum`_, `checked_cast_br`_) that
transform the input value, consuming it in the process, and producing a new
transformed owned value as a result.

Putting this all together, one can view each owned SIL value as being
effectively a "move only value" except when explicitly copied by a
copy_value. This of course implies that ARC operations can be assumed to only
semantically effect the specific value that they are applied to /and/ that each
ARC constraint is able to be verified independently for each owned SILValue
derived from the ARC object. As an example, consider the following Swift/SIL::

  // testcase.swift.
  func doSomething(x : Klass) -> OtherKlass? {
    return x as? OtherKlass
  }

  // testcase.sil. A possible SILGen lowering
  sil [ossa] @doSomething : $@convention(thin) (@guaranteed Klass) -> () {
  bb0(%0 : @guaranteed Klass):
    // Definition of '%1'
    %1 = copy_value %0 : $Klass

    // Consume '%1'. This means '%1' can no longer be used after this point. We
    // rebind '%1' in the destination blocks (bbYes, bbNo).
    checked_cast_br Klass in %1 : $Klass to $OtherKlass, bbYes, bbNo

  bbYes(%2 : @owned $OtherKlass): // On success, the checked_cast_br forwards
                                  // '%1' into '%2' after casting to OtherKlass.

    // Forward '%2' into '%3'. '%2' can not be used past this point in the
    // function.
    %3 = enum $Optional<OtherKlass>, case #Optional.some!enumelt, %2 : $OtherKlass

    // Forward '%3' into the branch. '%3' can not be used past this point.
    br bbEpilog(%3 : $Optional<OtherKlass>)

  bbNo(%3 : @owned $Klass): // On failure, since we consumed '%1' already, we
                            // return the original '%1' as a new value '%3'
                            // so we can use it below.
    // Actually destroy the underlying copy (``%1``) created by the copy_value
    // in bb0.
    destroy_value %3 : $Klass

    // We want to return nil here. So we create a new non-payloaded enum and
    // pass it off to bbEpilog.
    %4 = enum $Optional<OtherKlass>, case #Optional.none!enumelt
    br bbEpilog(%4 : $Optional<OtherKlass>)

  bbEpilog(%5 : @owned $Optional<OtherKlass>):
    // Consumes '%5' to return to caller.
    return %5 : $Optional<OtherKlass>
  }

Notice how our individual copy (``%1``) threads its way through the IR using
`forwarding uses`_ of ``@owned`` ownership. These `forwarding uses`_ partition the
lifetime of the result of the copy_value into a set of disjoint individual owned
lifetimes (``%2``, ``%3``, ``%5``).

Guaranteed
``````````

Guaranteed ownership models values that have a scoped dependent lifetime on a
"base value" with owned or guaranteed ownership. Due to this lifetime
dependence, the base value is required to be statically live over the entire
scope where the guaranteed value is valid.

These explicit scopes are introduced into SIL by begin scope instructions (e.x.:
`begin_borrow`_, `load_borrow`_) that are paired with sets of jointly
post-dominating scope ending instructions (e.x.: `end_borrow`_)::

  sil [ossa] @guaranteed_values : $@convention(thin) (@owned Klass) -> () {
  bb0(%0 : @owned $Klass):
    %1 = begin_borrow %0 : $Klass
    cond_br ..., bb1, bb2

  bb1:
    ...
    end_borrow %1 : $Klass
    destroy_value %0 : $Klass
    br bb3

  bb2:
    ...
    end_borrow %1 : $Klass
    destroy_value %0 : $Klass
    br bb3

  bb3:
    ...
  }

Notice how the `end_borrow`_ allow for a SIL generator to communicate to
optimizations that they can never shrink the lifetime of ``%0`` by moving
`destroy_value`_ above ``%1``.

Values with guaranteed ownership follow a dataflow rule that states that
non-consuming `forwarding uses`_ of the guaranteed value are also guaranteed and
are recursively validated as being in the original values scope. This was a
choice we made to reduce idempotent scopes in the IR::

  sil [ossa] @get_first_elt : $@convention(thin) (@guaranteed (String, String)) -> @owned String {
  bb0(%0 : @guaranteed $(String, String)):
    // %1 is validated as if it was apart of %0 and does not need its own begin_borrow/end_borrow.
    %1 = tuple_extract %0 : $(String, String)
    // So this copy_value is treated as a use of %0.
    %2 = copy_value %1 : $String
    return %2 : $String
  }

None
````

Values with None ownership are inert values that exist outside of the guarantees
of Ownership SSA. Some examples of such values are:

* Trivially typed values such as: Int, Float, Double
* Non-payloaded non-trivial enums.
* Address types.

Since values with none ownership exist outside of ownership SSA, they can be
used like normal SSA without violating ownership SSA invariants. This does not
mean that code does not potentially violate other SIL rules (consider memory
lifetime invariants)::

    sil @none_values : $@convention(thin) (Int, @in Klass) -> Int {
    bb0(%0 : $Int, %1 : $*Klass):

      // %0, %1 are normal SSA values that can be used anywhere in the function
      // without breaking Ownership SSA invariants. It could violate other
      // invariants if for instance, we load from %1 after we destroy the object
      // there.
      destroy_addr %1 : $*Klass

      // If uncommented, this would violate memory lifetime invariants due to
      // the ``destroy_addr %1`` above. But this would not violate the rules of
      // Ownership SSA since addresses exist outside of the guarantees of
      // Ownership SSA.
      //
      // %2 = load [take] %1 : $*Klass

      // I can return this object without worrying about needing to copy since
      // none objects can be arbitrarily returned.
      return %0 : $Int
    }

Unowned
```````

This is a form of ownership that is used to model two different use cases:

* Arguments of functions with ObjC convention. This convention requires the
  callee to copy the value before using it (preferably before any other code
  runs). We do not model this flow sensitive property in SIL today, but we do
  not allow for unowned values to be passed as owned or guaranteed values
  without copying it first.

* Values that are a conversion from a trivial value with None ownership to a
  non-trivial value. As an example of this consider an unsafe bit cast of a
  trivial pointer to a class. In that case, since we have no reason to assume
  that the object will remain alive, we need to make a copy of the value.

Ownership Constraint
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

NOTE: We assume that one has read the section above on `Ownership Kind`_.

As mentioned above, every operand ``operand(i)`` of a SIL instruction ``i`` has
statically mapped to it:

1. An ownership kind that acts as an "Ownership Constraint" upon what "Ownership
   Kind" a value can take.

2. A boolean value that defines whether or not the execution of the operand's
   instruction will cause the operand's value to be invalidated. This is often
   times referred to as an operand acting as a "lifetime ending use".

Forwarding Uses
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

NOTE: In the following, we assumed that one read the section above, `Ownership
Kind`_, `Value Ownership Kind`_ and `Ownership Constraint`_.

A subset of SIL instructions define the value ownership kind of their results in
terms of the value ownership kind of their operands. Such an instruction is
called a "forwarding instruction" and any use with such a user instruction a
"forwarding use". This inference generally occurs upon instruction construction
and as a result:

* When manipulating forwarding instructions programmatically, one must manually
  update their forwarded ownership since most of the time the ownership is
  stored in the instruction itself. Don't worry though because the SIL verifier
  will catch this error for you if you forget to do so!

* Textual SIL does not represent the ownership of forwarding instructions
  explicitly. Instead, the instruction's ownership is inferred normally from the
  parsed operand.
  In some cases the forwarding ownership kind is different from the ownership kind
  of its operand. In such cases, textual SIL represents the forwarding ownership kind
  explicitly.
  Eg: ::

    %cast = unchecked_ref_cast %val : $Klass to $Optional<Klass>, forwarding: @unowned

  Since the SILVerifier runs on Textual SIL after parsing, you
  can feel confident that ownership constraints were inferred correctly.

Forwarding has slightly different ownership semantics depending on the value
ownership kind of the operand on construction and the result's type. We go
through each below:

* Given an ``@owned`` operand, the forwarding instruction is assumed to end the
  lifetime of the operand and produce an ``@owned`` value if non-trivially typed
  and ``@none`` if trivially typed. Example: This is used to represent the
  semantics of casts::

      sil @unsafelyCastToSubClass : $@convention(thin) (@owned Klass) -> @owned SubKlass {
      bb0(%0 : @owned $Klass): // %0 is defined here.

        // %0 is consumed here and can no longer be used after this point.
        // %1 is defined here and after this point must be used to access the object
        // passed in via %0.
        %1 = unchecked_ref_cast %0 : $Klass to $SubKlass

        // Then %1's lifetime ends here and we return the casted argument to our
        // caller as an @owned result.
        return %1 : $SubKlass
      }

* Given a ``@guaranteed`` operand, the forwarding instruction is assumed to
  produce ``@guaranteed`` non-trivially typed values and ``@none`` trivially
  typed values. Given the non-trivial case, the instruction is assumed to begin
  a new implicit borrow scope for the incoming value. Since the borrow scope is
  implicit, we validate the uses of the result as if they were uses of the
  operand (recursively). This of course means that one should never see
  end_borrows on any guaranteed forwarded results, the end_borrow is always on
  the instruction that "introduces" the borrowed value. An example of a
  guaranteed forwarding instruction is ``struct_extract``::

     // In this function, I have a pair of Klasses and I want to grab some state
     // and then call the hand off function for someone else to continue
     // processing the pair.
     sil @accessLHSStateAndHandOff : $@convention(thin) (@owned KlassPair) -> @owned State {
     bb0(%0 : @owned $KlassPair): // %0 is defined here.

       // Begin the borrow scope for %0. We want to access %1's subfield in a
       // read only way that doesn't involve destructuring and extra copies. So
       // we construct a guaranteed scope here so we can safely use a
       // struct_extract.
       %1 = begin_borrow %0 : $KlassPair

       // Now we perform our struct_extract operation. This operation
       // structurally grabs a value out of a struct without safety relying on
       // the guaranteed ownership of its operand to know that %1 is live at all
       // use points of %2, its result.
       %2 = struct_extract %1 : $KlassPair, #KlassPair.lhs

       // Then grab the state from our left hand side klass and copy it so we
       // can pass off our klass pair to handOff for continued processing.
       %3 = ref_element_addr %2 : $Klass, #Klass.state
       %4 = load [copy] %3 : $*State

       // Now that we have finished accessing %1, we end the borrow scope for %1.
       end_borrow %1 : $KlassPair

       %handOff = function_ref @handOff : $@convention(thin) (@owned KlassPair) -> ()
       apply %handOff(%0) : $@convention(thin) (@owned KlassPair) -> ()

       return %4 : $State
     }

* Given an ``@none`` operand, the result value must have ``@none`` ownership.

* Given an ``@unowned`` operand, the result value will have ``@unowned``
  ownership. It will be validated just like any other ``@unowned`` value, namely
  that it must be copied before use.

An additional wrinkle here is that even though the vast majority of forwarding
instructions forward all types of ownership, this is not true in general. To see
why this is necessary, lets compare/contrast `struct_extract`_ (which does not
forward ``@owned`` ownership) and `unchecked_enum_data`_ (which can forward
/all/ ownership kinds). The reason for this difference is that `struct_extract`_
inherently can only extract out a single field of a larger object implying that
the instruction could only represent consuming a sub-field of a value instead of
the entire value at once. This violates our constraint that owned values can
never be partially consumed: a value is either completely alive or completely
dead. In contrast, enums always represent their payloads as elements in a single
tuple value. This means that `unchecked_enum_data`_ when it extracts that
payload from an enum, can consume the entire enum+payload.

To handle cases where we want to use `struct_extract`_ in a consuming way, we
instead are able to use the `destructure_struct`_ instruction that consumes the
entire struct at once and gives one back the structs individual constituent
parts::

     struct KlassPair {
       var fieldOne: Klass
       var fieldTwo: Klass
     }

     sil @getFirstPairElt : $@convention(thin) (@owned KlassPair) -> @owned Klass {
     bb0(%0 : @owned $KlassPair):
       // If we were to just do this directly and consume KlassPair to access
       // fieldOne... what would happen to fieldTwo? Would it be consumed?
       //
       // %1 = struct_extract %0 : $KlassPair, #KlassPair.fieldOne
       //
       // Instead we need to destructure to ensure we consume the entire owned value at once.
       (%1, %2) = destructure_struct $KlassPair

       // We only want to return %1, so we need to cleanup %2.
       destroy_value %2 : $Klass

       // Then return %1 to our caller
       return %1 : $Klass
     }

Forwarding Address-Only Values
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Address-only values are potentially unmovable when borrowed. This
means that they cannot be forwarded with guaranteed ownership unless
the forwarded value has the same representation as in the original
value and can reuse the same storage. Non-destructive projection is
allowed, such as `struct_extract`. Aggregation, such as `struct`, and
destructive disaggregation, such as `switch_enum` is not allowed. This
is an invariant for OSSA with opaque SIL values for these reasons:

1. To avoid implicit semantic copies. For move-only values, this allows
complete diagnostics. And in general, it makes it impossible for SIL
passes to "accidentally" create copies.

2. To reuse borrowed storage. This allows the optimizer to share the same
storage for multiple exclusive reads of the same variable, avoiding
copies. It may also be necessary to support native Swift atomics, which
will be unmovable-when-borrowed.

Borrowed Object based Safe Interior Pointers
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

What is an "Unsafe Interior Pointer"
````````````````````````````````````

An unsafe interior pointer is a bare pointer into the innards of an object. A
simple example of this in C++ would be using the method std::vector::data() to
get to the innards of a std::vector. In general interior pointers are unsafe to
use since languages do not provide any guarantees that the interior pointer will
not be used after the underlying object has been deallocated. To see this,
consider the following C++ example::

    int unfortunateFunction() {
      int *unsafeInteriorPointer = nullptr;
      {
        std::vector<int> vector;
        vector.push_back(5);
        unsafeInteriorPointer = vector.data();
        printf("%d\n", *unsafeInteriorPointer); // Prints "5".
      } // vector deallocated here
      return *unsafeInteriorPointer; // Kaboom
    }

In words, C++ allows for us to get the interior pointer into the vector, but
then lets us do whatever we want with the pointer, including use it after the
underlying memory has been invalidated.

From a user's perspective, interior pointers are really useful since one can use
it to pass data to other APIs that are only expecting a pointer and also since
one can use it to sometimes get better performance. But from a language designer
perspective, this sort of API verboten and leads to bugs, crashes, and security
vulnerabilities. That being said, clearly users have a need for such
functionality, so we, as language designers, should figure out manners to
express these sorts of patterns in our various languages in a safe way that
prevents user’s from foot-gunning themselves. In SIL, we have solved this
problem via the direct modeling of interior pointer instructions as a high level
concept in our IR.

Safe Interior Pointers in SIL
`````````````````````````````

In contrast to LLVM-IR, SIL provides mechanisms that language designers can use
to express concepts like the above in a manner that allows the language to
define away compiler generated unsafe interior pointer usage using "Safe
Interior Pointers". This is implemented in SIL by:

1. Classifying a set of instructions as being "interior pointer" instructions.
2. Enforcing in the SILVerifier that all "interior pointer" instructions can
   only have operands with `Guaranteed`_ ownership.
3. Enforcing in the SILVerifier that any transitive address use of the interior
   pointer to be a liveness requirement of the "interior pointer"'s
   operand.

Note that the transitive address use verifier from (3) does not attempt to
classify uses directly. Instead the verifier:

1. Has an explicit list of instructions that it understands as requiring
   liveness of the base object.

2. Has a second list of instructions that require liveness and produce a address
   whose transitive uses need to be recursively processed.

3. Asserts on any instructions that are not known to the verifier. This ensures
   that the verifier is kept up to date with new instructions.

Note that typically instructions in category (1) are instructions whose uses do
not propagate the pointer value, so they are safe. In contrast, some other
instructions in category (1) are escaping uses of the address such as
`pointer_to_address`_. Those uses are unsafe--the user is responsible for
managing unsafe pointer lifetimes and the compiler must not extend those pointer
lifetimes.

These rules ensure statically that any uses of the address that are not escaped
explicitly by an instruction like `pointer_to_address`_ are within the
guaranteed pointers scope where the guaranteed value is statically known to be
live. As a result, in SIL it is impossible to express such a bug in compiler
generated code. As an example, consider the following unsafe interior pointer
SIL::

    class Klass { var k: KlassField }
    struct KlassWrapper { var k: Klass }

    // ...

    // Today SIL restricts interior pointer instructions to only have operands
    // with guaranteed ownership.
    %1 = begin_borrow %0 : $Klass

    // %2 is an interior pointer into %1. Since %2 is an address, it's uses are
    // not treated as uses of underlying borrowed object %1 in the ownership
    // system. This is because at the ownership level objects with None
    // ownership are not verified and do not have any constraints on how they
    // are used from the ownership system.
    //
    // Instead the ownership verifier gathers up all such uses and treats them
    // as uses of the object from which the interior pointer was projected from
    // transitively. This means that this is a constraint on the guaranteed
    // objects use, not on the trivial values.
    %2 = ref_element_addr %1 : $Klass, #Klass.k // %2 is a $*KlassWrapper
    %3 = struct_element_addr %2 : $*KlassWrapper, #KlassWrapper.k // %3 is a $*Klass

    // So if we end the borrow %1 at this point, invalidating the addresses
    // ``%2`` and ``%3``.
    end_borrow %1 : $Klass

    // We would here be loading from an invalidated address. This would cause a
    // verifier error since %3's use here is a regular use that is inferred up
    // on %1.
    %4 = load [copy] %3 : $*KlassWrapper

    // ...

Notice how due to a possible bug in the compiler, we are loading from
potentially uninitialized memory ``%4``. This would have caused a verifier error
stating that ``%4`` was an interior pointer based use-after-free of ``%1``
implying this is mal-formed SIL.

NOTE: This is a constraint on the base object, not on the addresses themselves
which are viewed as outside of the ownership system since they have `None`_
ownership.

In contrast to the previous example, the following example follows ownership
invariants and is valid SIL::

    class Klass { var k: KlassField }
    struct KlassWrapper { var k: Klass }

    // ...

    %1 = begin_borrow %0 : $Klass
    // %2 is an interior pointer into the Klass k. Since %2 is an address and
    // addresses have None ownership, it's uses are not treated as uses of the
    // underlying object %1.
    %2 = ref_element_addr %1 : $Klass, #Klass.k // %2 is a $*KlassWrapper

    // Destroying %1 at this location would result in a verifier error since
    // %2's uses are considered to be uses of %1.
    //
    // end_lifetime %1 : $Klass

    // We are statically not loading from an invalidated address here since we
    // are within the lifetime of ``%1``.
    %3 = struct_element_addr %2 : $*KlassWrapper, #KlassWrapper.k
    %4 = load [copy] %3 : $*Klass // %1 must be live here transitively

    // ``%1``'s lifetime ends. Importantly we know that within the lifetime of
    // ``%1``, ``%0``'s lifetime can not shrink past this point, implying
    // transitive static safety.
    end_borrow %1 : $Klass

In the second example, we show a well-formed SIL program showing off SIL's Safe
Interior Pointers. All of the uses of ``%2``, the interior pointer, are
transitively uses of the base underlying object, ``%0``.

The current list of interior pointer SIL instructions are:

* `project_box`_ - projects a pointer out of a reference counted box. (*)
* `ref_element_addr`_ - projects a field out of a reference counted class.
* `ref_tail_addr`_ - projects out a pointer to a class’s tail allocated array
  memory (assuming the class was initialized to have such an array).
* `open_existential_box`_ - projects the address of the value out of a boxed
  existential container using the current function context/protocol conformance
  to create an "opened archetype".
* `project_existential_box`_ - projects a pointer to the value inside a boxed
  existential container. Must be the type for which the box was initially
  allocated for and not for an "opened" archetype.

(*) We still need to finish adding support for project_box, but all other
interior pointers are guarded already.

Variable Lifetimes
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

In order for programmer intended lifetimes to be maintained under optimization,
the lifetimes of SIL values which correspond to named source-level values can
only be modified in limited ways.  Generally, the behavior is that the lifetime
of a named source-level value is anchored to the variable's lexical scope and
confined by **deinit barriers**.  Specifically, code motion may not move the
ends of these lifetimes across a deinit barrier.

Source level variables (lets, vars, ...) and function arguments will result in
SIL-level lexical lifetimes if either of the two sets of circumstances apply:
(1) Inferred lexicality.
- the type is non-trivial
- the type is not eager-move
- the variable or argument is not annotated to be eager-move
OR
(2) Explicit lexicality.
- the type, variable, or argument is annotated `@_lexical`

A type is eager-move by satisfying one of two conditions:
(1) Inferred: An aggregate is inferred to be eager-move if all of its fields are
    eager-move.
(2) Annotated: Any type can be eager-move if it is annotated with an attribute
    that explicitly specifies it to be: `@_eagerMove`, `@_noImplicitCopy`.

A variable or argument is eager-move by satisfying one of two conditions:
(1) Inferred: Its type is eager-move.
(2) Annotated: The variable or argument is annotated with an attribute that
    specifies it to be: `@_eagerMove`, `@_noImplicitCopy`.

These source-level rules result in a few sorts of SIL value whose destroys must
not be moved across deinit barriers:

1: `begin_borrow [lexical]`
2: `move_value [lexical]`
3: function arguments
4: `alloc_stack [lexical]`

To translate from the source-level representation of lexicality to the
SIL-level representation, for source-level variables (vars, lets, ...) SILGen
generates `begin_borrow [lexical]`, `move_value [lexical]`, `alloc_stack
[lexical]` .  For function arguments, there is no work to do:
a `SILFunctionArgument` itself can be lexical
(`SILFunctionArgument::isLexical`).

That the first three have constrained lifetimes is encoded in
ValueBase::isLexical, which should be checked before changing the lifetime of a
value.

When a function is inlined into its caller, a lexical borrow scope is added for
each of its @guaranteed arguments, and a lexical move is added for each of its
@owned arguments, (unless the values being passed are already lexical
themselves) ensuring that the lifetimes of the corresponding source-level
values are not shortened in a way that doesn't respect deinit barriers.

Unlike the other sorts, `alloc_stack [lexical]` isn't a SILValue.  Instead, it
constrains the lifetime of an addressable variable.  Since the constraint is
applied to the in-memory representation, no additional lexical SILValue is
required.

Deinit Barriers
```````````````

Deinit barriers (see Instruction.isDeinitBarrier(_:)) are instructions which
would be affected by the side effects of deinitializers.  To maintain the order
of effects that is visible to the programmer, destroys of lexical values cannot
be reordered with respect to them.  There are three kinds:

1. synchronization points (locks, memory barriers, syscalls, etc.)
2. loads of weak or unowned values
3. accesses of pointers

Examples:

1. Given an instance of a class which owns a file handle and closes the file
   handle on deinit, writing to the file handle and then deallocating the
   instance would result in changes being written.  If the destroy of the
   instance were hoisted above the call to write to the file handle, an error
   would be raised instead.
2. Given an instance `c` of a class `C` which weakly references an instance `d`
   of a second class `D`, if `d` is referenced via a local variable `v`, then
   loading that weak reference from `c` within the variable scope should return
   a non-nil reference to `d`.  Hoisting the destroy of `v` above the weak load
   from `c`, however, would result in the destruction of `d` before that load
   and a nil weak reference to `D`.
3. Given an instance of a class which owns a buffer and deallocates it on
   deinitialization, accessing the pointer and then deallocating the instance
   is defined behavior.  Hoisting the destroy of the instance above the access
   to the memory would result in accessing a freed pointer.

Memory Lifetime
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Similar to Ownership SSA, there are also lifetime rules for values in memory.
With "memory" we refer to memory which is addressed by SIL instruction with
address-type operands, like ``load``, ``store``, ``switch_enum_addr``, etc.

Each memory location which holds a non-trivial value is either uninitialized
or initialized. A memory location gets initialized by storing values into it
(except assignment, which expects a location to be already initialized).
A memory location gets de-initialized by "taking" from it or destroying it, e.g.
with ``destroy_addr``. It is illegal to re-initialize a memory location or to
use a location after it was de-initialized.

If a memory location holds a trivial value (e.g. an ``Int``), it is not
required to de-initialize the location.

The SIL verifier checks this rule for memory locations which can be uniquely
identified, for example and ``alloc_stack`` or an indirect parameter. The
verifier cannot check memory locations which are potentially aliased, e.g.
a ``ref_element_addr`` (a stored class property).

Lifetime of Enums in Memory
```````````````````````````

The situation is a bit more complicated with enums, because an enum can have
both, cases with non-trivial payloads and cases with no payload or trivial
payloads.

Even if an enum itself is not trivial (because it has at least on case with a
non-trivial payload), it is not required to de-initialize such an enum memory
location on paths where it's statically provable that the enum contains a
trivial or non-payload case.

That's the case if the destroy point is jointly dominated by:

* a ``store [trivial]`` to the enum memory location.

or

* an ``inject_enum_addr`` to the enum memory location with a non-trivial or
  non-payload case.

or

* a successor of a ``switch_enum`` or ``switch_enum_addr`` for a non-trivial
  or non-payload case.

Dead End Blocks
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

In SIL, one can express that a program is semantically expected to exit at the
end of a block by terminating the block with an `unreachable`_. Such a block is
called a *program terminating block* and all blocks that are post-dominated by
blocks of the aforementioned kind are called *dead end blocks*. Intuitively, any
path through a dead end block is known to result in program termination, so
resources that normally would need to be released back to the system will
instead be returned to the system by process tear down.

Since we rely on the system at these points to perform resource cleanup, we are
able to loosen our lifetime requirements by allowing for values to not have
their lifetimes ended along paths that end in program terminating
blocks. Operationally, this implies that:

* All SIL values must have exactly one lifetime ending use on all paths that
  terminate in a `return`_ or `throw`_. In contrast, a SIL value does not need to
  have a lifetime ending use along paths that end in an `unreachable`_.

* `end_borrow`_ and `destroy_value`_ are redundant, albeit legal, in blocks
  where all paths through the block end in an `unreachable`_.

Consider the following legal SIL where we leak ``%0`` in blocks prefixed with
``bbDeadEndBlock`` and consume it in ``bb2``::

  sil @user : $@convention(thin) (@owned Klass) -> @owned Klass {
  bb0(%0 : @owned $Klass):
    cond_br ..., bb1, bb2

  bb1:
    // This is a dead end block since it is post-dominated by two dead end
    // blocks. It is not a program terminating block though since the program
    // does not end in this block.
    cond_br ..., bbDeadEndBlock1, bbDeadEndBlock2

  bbDeadEndBlock1:
    // This is a dead end block and a program terminating block.
    //
    // We are exiting the program here causing the operating system to clean up
    // all resources associated with our process, so there is no need for a
    // destroy_value. That memory will be cleaned up anyways.
    unreachable

  bbDeadEndBlock2:
    // This is a dead end block and a program terminating block.
    //
    // Even though we do not need to insert destroy_value along these paths, we
    // can if we want to. It is just necessary and the optimizer can eliminate
    // such a destroy_value if it wishes.
    //
    // NOTE: The author arbitrarily chose just to destroy %0: we could legally
    // destroy either value (or both!).
    destroy_value %0 : $Klass
    unreachable

  bb2:
    cond_br ..., bb3, bb4

  bb3:
    // This block is live, so we need to ensure that %0 is consumed within the
    // block. In this case, %0 is consumed by returning %0 to our caller.
    return %0 : $Klass

  bb4:
    // This block is also live, but since we do not return %0, we must insert a
    // destroy_value to cleanup %0.
    //
    // NOTE: The copy_value/destroy_value here is redundant and can be removed by
    // the optimizer. The author left it in for illustrative purposes.
    %1 = copy_value %0 : $Klass
    destroy_value %0 : $Klass
    return %1 : $Klass
  }

Move Only Wrapped Types
-----------------------

Semantics
~~~~~~~~~

Today SIL supports values of move only wrapped type. Given a copyable type
``$T``, the type ``$@moveOnly T`` is the move only wrapped variant of the
type. This type is always non-trivial even if ``$T`` itself is trivial (see
discussion below).  All move only wrapped types obey the invariant that they can
be copied in Raw SIL but cannot be copied in Canonical SIL and later SIL
stages. This ensures that once we are in Canonical SIL such values are "move
only values" that are guaranteed to never be copied. This is enforced by:

* Having SILGen emit copies as it normally does.

* Use OSSA canonicalization to eliminate copies that aren't needed semantically
  due to consuming uses of the value. This is implemented by the guaranteed
  passes "MoveOnlyObjectChecker" and "MoveOnlyAddressChecker". We will emit
  errors on any of the consuming uses that we found in said pass.

Assuming that no errors are emitted, we can then conclude before we reach
canonical SIL that the value was never copied and thus is a "move only value"
even though the actual underlying wrapped type is copyable. As an example of
this, consider the following Swift::

  func doSomething(@_noImplicitCopy _ x: Klass) -> () { // expected-error {{'x' is borrowed and cannot be consumed}}
    x.doSomething()
    let x2 = x // expected-note {{consuming use}}
    x2.doSomething()
  }

which codegens to the following SIL::

  sil hidden [ossa] @doSomething : $@convention(thin) (@guaranteed Klass) -> () {
  bb0(%0 : @noImplicitCopy $Klass):
    %1 = copyable_to_moveonlywrapper [guaranteed] %0 : $@moveOnly Klass
    %2 = copy_value %1 : $@moveOnly Klass
    %3 = mark_must_check [no_consume_or_assign] %2 : $@moveOnly Klass
    debug_value %3 : $@moveOnly Klass, let, name "x", argno 1
    %4 = begin_borrow %3 : $@moveOnly Klass
    %5 = function_ref @$s4test5KlassC11doSomethingyyF : $@convention(method) (@guaranteed Klass) -> ()
    %6 = moveonlywrapper_to_copyable [guaranteed] %4 : $@moveOnly Klass
    %7 = apply %5(%6) : $@convention(method) (@guaranteed Klass) -> ()
    end_borrow %4 : $@moveOnly Klass
    %9 = begin_borrow %3 : $@moveOnly Klass
    %10 = copy_value %9 : $@moveOnly Klass
    %11 = moveonlywrapper_to_copyable [owned] %10 : $@moveOnly Klass
    %12 = begin_borrow [lexical] %11 : $Klass
    debug_value %12 : $Klass, let, name "x2"
    end_borrow %9 : $@moveOnly Klass
    %15 = function_ref @$s4test5KlassC11doSomethingyyF : $@convention(method) (@guaranteed Klass) -> ()
    %16 = apply %15(%12) : $@convention(method) (@guaranteed Klass) -> ()
    end_borrow %12 : $Klass
    destroy_value %11 : $Klass
    destroy_value %3 : $@moveOnly Klass
    %20 = tuple ()
    return %20 : $()
  } // end sil function '$s4test11doSomethingyyAA5KlassCF'

When the move only checker runs upon this SIL, it will see that the
``moveonlywrapped_to_copyable [owned]`` is a transitive consuming use of ``%2``
(ignoring copies) and that we have a non-consuming use later. So it will emit an
error that we have a guaranteed parameter that is being consumed. If we remove
the assignment to ``x2``, then after the move checker runs successfully we would
get the following SIL::

  sil hidden [ossa] @doSomething : $@convention(thin) (@guaranteed Klass) -> () {
  bb0(%0 : @noImplicitCopy $Klass):
    %1 = copyable_to_moveonlywrapper [guaranteed] %0 : $Klass
    debug_value %1 : $@moveOnly Klass, let, name "x", argno 1
    %4 = begin_borrow %1 : $@moveOnly Klass
    %5 = function_ref @$s4test5KlassC11doSomethingyyF : $@convention(method) (@guaranteed Klass) -> ()
    %6 = moveonlywrapper_to_copyable [guaranteed] %4 : $@moveOnly Klass
    %7 = apply %5(%6) : $@convention(method) (@guaranteed Klass) -> ()
    end_borrow %4 : $@moveOnly Klass
    %20 = tuple ()
    return %20 : $()
  } // end sil function '$s4test11doSomethingyyAA5KlassCF'

yielding SIL without any copies just as we wanted.

At the ABI level, ``@moveOnly`` does not exist and thus never shows up in a
SILFunctionType's parameters. Instead, we represent it only in the body of
functions and on a function's internal SILArgument representation. This is since
move only wrapped is intended to be a local power tool for controlling lifetimes
rather than a viral type level annotation that would constrain the type system.

As mentioned above trivial move only wrapped types are actually
non-trivial. This is because in SIL ownership is tied directly to
non-trivialness so unless we did that we could not track ownership
accurately. This loss of triviality is not an issue for most of the pipeline
since we eliminate all move only wrapper types for trivial types during the
guaranteed optimizations after we have run various ownership checkers but before
we have run diagnostics for trivial types (e.x.: DiagnosticConstantPropagation).

As an example in practice, consider the following Swift::

  func doSomethingWithInt(@_noImplicitCopy _ x: Int) -> Int {
    x + x
  }

Today this codegens to the following Swift::

  sil hidden [ossa] @doSomethingWithInt : $@convention(thin) (Int) -> Int {
  bb0(%0 : @noImplicitCopy $Int):
    %1 = copyable_to_moveonlywrapper [owned] %0 : $Int
    %2 = move_value [lexical] %1 : $@moveOnly Int
    %3 = mark_must_check [consumable_and_assignable] %2 : $@moveOnly Int
    %5 = begin_borrow %3 : $@moveOnly Int
    %6 = begin_borrow %3 : $@moveOnly Int
    %7 = function_ref @addIntegers : $@convention(method) (Int, Int Int.Type) -> Int
    %8 = moveonlywrapper_to_copyable [guaranteed] %5 : $@moveOnly Int
    %9 = moveonlywrapper_to_copyable [guaranteed] %6 : $@moveOnly Int
    %10 = apply %7(%8, %9) : $@convention(method) (Int, Int) -> Int
    end_borrow %6 : $@moveOnly Int
    end_borrow %5 : $@moveOnly Int
    destroy_value %3 : $@moveOnly Int
    return %10 : $Int
  }

once the checker has run, this becomes::

  sil hidden [ossa] @doSomethingWithInt : $@convention(thin) (Int) -> Int {
  bb0(%0 : @noImplicitCopy $Int):
    %1 = copyable_to_moveonlywrapper [owned] %0 : $Int
    %2 = move_value [lexical] %1 : $@moveOnly Int
    %5 = begin_borrow %2 : $@moveOnly Int
    %6 = begin_borrow %2 : $@moveOnly Int
    %7 = function_ref @addIntegers : $@convention(method) (Int, Int Int.Type) -> Int
    %8 = moveonlywrapper_to_copyable [guaranteed] %5 : $@moveOnly Int
    %9 = moveonlywrapper_to_copyable [guaranteed] %6 : $@moveOnly Int
    %10 = apply %7(%8, %9) : $@convention(method) (Int, Int) -> Int
    end_borrow %6 : $@moveOnly Int
    end_borrow %5 : $@moveOnly Int
    return %10 : $Int
  }

and once we have run the move only wrapped type lowerer, we get the following
SIL::

  sil hidden [ossa] @doSomethingWithInt : $@convention(thin) (Int) -> Int {
  bb0(%0 : @noImplicitCopy $Int):
    %1 = function_ref @addIntegers : $@convention(method) (Int, Int) -> Int
    %2 = apply %1(%0, %0) : $@convention(method) (Int, Int) -> Int
    return %2 : $Int
  }

exactly what we wanted in the end.

If we are given an owned argument or a let binding, we use a similar
approach. Consider the following Swift::

  func doSomethingWithKlass(_ x: Klass) -> Klass {
    @_noImplicitCopy let value = x
    let value2 = value
    return value
  }

A hypothetical SILGen for this code is as follows::
  
  sil hidden [ossa] @$s4test20doSomethingWithKlassyAA0E0CADF : $@convention(thin) (@guaranteed Klass) -> @owned Klass {
  bb0(%0 : @guaranteed $Klass):
    debug_value %0 : $Klass, let, name "x", argno 1
    %3 = begin_borrow [lexical] %0 : $Klass
    %4 = copy_value %3 : $Klass
    %5 = copyable_to_moveonlywrapper [owned] %4 : $Klass
    %6 = mark_must_check [consumable_and_assignable] %5 : $@moveOnly Klass
    debug_value %6 : $@moveOnly Klass, let, name "value"
    %8 = begin_borrow %6 : $@moveOnly Klass
    %9 = copy_value %8 : $@moveOnly Klass
    %10 = moveonlywrapper_to_copyable [owned] %9 : $@moveOnly Klass
    %11 = begin_borrow [lexical] %10 : $Klass
    debug_value %11 : $Klass, let, name "value2"
    end_borrow %8 : $@moveOnly Klass
    %14 = begin_borrow %6 : $@moveOnly Klass
    %15 = copy_value %14 : $@moveOnly Klass
    end_borrow %14 : $@moveOnly Klass
    end_borrow %11 : $Klass
    destroy_value %10 : $Klass
    destroy_value %6 : $@moveOnly Klass
    end_borrow %3 : $Klass
    %22 = moveonlywrapper_to_copyable [owned] %15 : $@moveOnly Klass
    return %22 : $Klass
  } // end sil function '$s4test20doSomethingWithKlassyAA0E0CADF'

Notice above how the ``moveonlywrapper_to_copyable [owned]`` is used to escape
the no implicit copy value. In fact, if one runs the following SILGen through
sil-opt, one will see that we actually have an ownership violation due to the
two uses of "value", one for initializing value2 and the other for the return
value.

Move Only Types
---------------

NOTE: This is experimental and is just an attempt to describe where the design
is currently for others reading SIL today. It should not be interpreted as
final.

Currently there are two kinds of "move only types" in SIL: pure move only types
that are always move only and move only wrapped types that are move only
versions of copyable types. The invariant that values of Move Only type obey is
that they can only be copied (e.x.: operand to a `copy_value`_, ``copy_addr [init]``) during the
guaranteed passes when we are in Raw SIL. Once we are in non-Raw SIL though
(i.e. Canonical and later SIL stages), a program is ill formed if one copies a
move only type.

The reason why we have this special rule for move only types is that this allows
for SIL code generators to insert copies and then have a later guaranteed
checker optimization pass recover the underlying move only semantics by
reconstructing needed copies and removing unneeded copies using Ownership
SSA. If any such copies are actually needed according to Ownership SSA, the
checker pass emits a diagnostic stating that move semantics have been
violated. If such a diagnostic is emitted then the checker pass transforms all
copies on move only types to their explicit copy forms to ensure that once we
leave the diagnostic passes and enter canonical SIL, our "copy" invariant is
maintained.

Runtime Failure
---------------

Some operations, such as failed unconditional `checked conversions`_ or the
``Builtin.trap`` compiler builtin, cause a *runtime failure*, which
unconditionally terminates the current actor. If it can be proven that a
runtime failure will occur or did occur, runtime failures may be reordered so
long as they remain well-ordered relative to operations external to the actor
or the program as a whole. For instance, with overflow checking on integer
arithmetic enabled, a simple ``for`` loop that reads inputs in from one or more
arrays and writes outputs to another array, all local
to the current actor, may cause runtime failure in the update operations::

  // Given unknown start and end values, this loop may overflow
  for var i = unknownStartValue; i != unknownEndValue; ++i {
    ...
  }

It is permitted to hoist the overflow check and associated runtime failure out
of the loop itself and check the bounds of the loop prior to entering it, so
long as the loop body has no observable effect outside of the current actor.

Undefined Behavior
------------------

Incorrect use of some operations is *undefined behavior*, such as invalid
unchecked casts involving ``Builtin.RawPointer`` types, or use of compiler
builtins that lower to LLVM instructions with undefined behavior at the LLVM
level. A SIL program with undefined behavior is meaningless, much like undefined
behavior in C, and has no predictable semantics. Undefined behavior should not
be triggered by valid SIL emitted by a correct Swift program using a correct
standard library, but cannot in all cases be diagnosed or verified at the SIL
level.

Calling Convention
------------------

This section describes how Swift functions are emitted in SIL.

Swift Calling Convention @convention(swift)
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

The Swift calling convention is the one used by default for native Swift
functions.

Tuples in the input type of the function are recursively destructured into
separate arguments, both in the entry point basic block of the callee, and
in the ``apply`` instructions used by callers::

  func foo(_ x:Int, y:Int)

  sil @foo : $(x:Int, y:Int) -> () {
  entry(%x : $Int, %y : $Int):
    ...
  }

  func bar(_ x:Int, y:(Int, Int))

  sil @bar : $(x:Int, y:(Int, Int)) -> () {
  entry(%x : $Int, %y0 : $Int, %y1 : $Int):
    ...
  }

  func call_foo_and_bar() {
    foo(1, 2)
    bar(4, (5, 6))
  }

  sil @call_foo_and_bar : $() -> () {
  entry:
    ...
    %foo = function_ref @foo : $(x:Int, y:Int) -> ()
    %foo_result = apply %foo(%1, %2) : $(x:Int, y:Int) -> ()
    ...
    %bar = function_ref @bar : $(x:Int, y:(Int, Int)) -> ()
    %bar_result = apply %bar(%4, %5, %6) : $(x:Int, y:(Int, Int)) -> ()
  }

Calling a function with trivial value types as inputs and outputs
simply passes the arguments by value. This Swift function::

  func foo(_ x:Int, y:Float) -> UnicodeScalar

  foo(x, y)

gets called in SIL as::

  %foo = constant_ref $(Int, Float) -> UnicodeScalar, @foo
  %z = apply %foo(%x, %y) : $(Int, Float) -> UnicodeScalar

Reference Counts
````````````````

*NOTE* This section only is speaking in terms of rules of thumb. The
actual behavior of arguments with respect to arguments is defined by
the argument's convention attribute (e.g. ``@owned``), not the
calling convention itself.

Reference type arguments are passed in at +1 retain count and consumed
by the callee. A reference type return value is returned at +1 and
consumed by the caller. Value types with reference type components
have their reference type components each retained and released the
same way. This Swift function::

  class A {}

  func bar(_ x:A) -> (Int, A) { ... }

  bar(x)

gets called in SIL as::

  %bar = function_ref @bar : $(A) -> (Int, A)
  strong_retain %x : $A
  %z = apply %bar(%x) : $(A) -> (Int, A)
  // ... use %z ...
  %z_1 = tuple_extract %z : $(Int, A), 1
  strong_release %z_1

When applying a thick function value as a callee, the function value is also
consumed at +1 retain count.

Address-Only Types
``````````````````

For address-only arguments, the caller allocates a copy and passes the address
of the copy to the callee. The callee takes ownership of the copy and is
responsible for destroying or consuming the value, though the caller must still
deallocate the memory. For address-only return values, the
caller allocates an uninitialized buffer and passes its address as the first
argument to the callee. The callee must initialize this buffer before
returning. This Swift function::

   @API struct A {}

  func bas(_ x:A, y:Int) -> A { return x }

  var z = bas(x, y)
  // ... use z ...

gets called in SIL as::

  %bas = function_ref @bas : $(A, Int) -> A
  %z = alloc_stack $A
  %x_arg = alloc_stack $A
  copy_addr %x to [initialize] %x_arg : $*A
  apply %bas(%z, %x_arg, %y) : $(A, Int) -> A
  dealloc_stack %x_arg : $*A // callee consumes %x.arg, caller deallocs
  // ... use %z ...
  destroy_addr %z : $*A
  dealloc_stack stack %z : $*A

The implementation of ``@bas`` is then responsible for consuming ``%x_arg`` and
initializing ``%z``.

Tuple arguments are destructured regardless of the
address-only-ness of the tuple type. The destructured fields are passed
individually according to the above convention. This Swift function::

  @API struct A {}

  func zim(_ x:Int, y:A, (z:Int, w:(A, Int)))

  zim(x, y, (z, w))

gets called in SIL as::

  %zim = function_ref @zim : $(x:Int, y:A, (z:Int, w:(A, Int))) -> ()
  %y_arg = alloc_stack $A
  copy_addr %y to [initialize] %y_arg : $*A
  %w_0_addr = element_addr %w : $*(A, Int), 0
  %w_0_arg = alloc_stack $A
  copy_addr %w_0_addr to [initialize] %w_0_arg : $*A
  %w_1_addr = element_addr %w : $*(A, Int), 1
  %w_1 = load %w_1_addr : $*Int
  apply %zim(%x, %y_arg, %z, %w_0_arg, %w_1) : $(x:Int, y:A, (z:Int, w:(A, Int))) -> ()
  dealloc_stack %w_0_arg
  dealloc_stack %y_arg

Variadic Arguments
``````````````````

Variadic arguments and tuple elements are packaged into an array and passed as
a single array argument. This Swift function::

  func zang(_ x:Int, (y:Int, z:Int...), v:Int, w:Int...)

  zang(x, (y, z0, z1), v, w0, w1, w2)

gets called in SIL as::

  %zang = function_ref @zang : $(x:Int, (y:Int, z:Int...), v:Int, w:Int...) -> ()
  %zs = <<make array from %z1, %z2>>
  %ws = <<make array from %w0, %w1, %w2>>
  apply %zang(%x, %y, %zs, %v, %ws)  : $(x:Int, (y:Int, z:Int...), v:Int, w:Int...) -> ()

@inout Arguments
````````````````

``@inout`` arguments are passed into the entry point by address. The callee
does not take ownership of the referenced memory. The referenced memory must
be initialized upon function entry and exit. If the ``@inout`` argument
refers to a fragile physical variable, then the argument is the address of that
variable. If the ``@inout`` argument refers to a logical property, then the
argument is the address of a caller-owned writeback buffer. It is the caller's
responsibility to initialize the buffer by storing the result of the property
getter prior to calling the function and to write back to the property
on return by loading from the buffer and invoking the setter with the final
value. This Swift function::

  func inout(_ x: inout Int) {
    x = 1
  }

gets lowered to SIL as::

  sil @inout : $(@inout Int) -> () {
  entry(%x : $*Int):
    %1 = integer_literal $Int, 1
    store %1 to %x
    return
  }

Swift Method Calling Convention @convention(method)
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

The method calling convention is currently identical to the freestanding
function convention. Methods are considered to be curried functions, taking
the "self" argument as their outer argument clause, and the method arguments
as the inner argument clause(s). The "self" argument is thus passed last::

  struct Foo {
    func method(_ x:Int) -> Int {}
  }

  sil @Foo_method_1 : $((x : Int), @inout Foo) -> Int { ... }

Witness Method Calling Convention @convention(witness_method)
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

The witness method calling convention is used by protocol witness methods in
`witness tables`_. It is identical to the ``method`` calling convention
except that its handling of generic type parameters. For non-witness methods,
the machine-level convention for passing type parameter metadata may be
arbitrarily dependent on static aspects of the function signature, but because
witnesses must be polymorphically dispatchable on their ``Self`` type,
the ``Self``-related metadata for a witness must be passed in a maximally
abstracted manner.

C Calling Convention @convention(c)
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

In Swift's C module importer, C types are always mapped to Swift types
considered trivial by SIL. SIL does not concern itself with platform
ABI requirements for indirect return, register vs. stack passing, etc.; C
function arguments and returns in SIL are always by value regardless of the
platform calling convention.

SIL (and therefore Swift) cannot currently invoke variadic C functions.

Objective-C Calling Convention @convention(objc_method)
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Reference Counts
````````````````

Objective-C methods use the same argument and return value ownership rules as
ARC Objective-C. Selector families and the ``ns_consumed``,
``ns_returns_retained``, etc. attributes from imported Objective-C definitions
are honored.

Applying a ``@convention(block)`` value does not consume the block.

Method Currying
```````````````

In SIL, the "self" argument of an Objective-C method is uncurried to the last
argument of the uncurried type, just like a native Swift method::

  @objc class NSString {
    func stringByPaddingToLength(Int) withString(NSString) startingAtIndex(Int)
  }

  sil @NSString_stringByPaddingToLength_withString_startingAtIndex \
    : $((Int, NSString, Int), NSString)

That ``self`` is passed as the first argument at the IR level is abstracted
away in SIL, as is the existence of the ``_cmd`` selector argument.

Type Based Alias Analysis
-------------------------

SIL supports two types of Type Based Alias Analysis (TBAA): Class TBAA and
Typed Access TBAA.

Class TBAA
~~~~~~~~~~

Class instances and other *heap object references* are pointers at the
implementation level, but unlike SIL addresses, they are first class values and
can be ``capture``-d and aliased. Swift, however, is memory-safe and statically
typed, so aliasing of classes is constrained by the type system as follows:

* A ``Builtin.NativeObject`` may alias any native Swift heap object,
  including a Swift class instance, a box allocated by ``alloc_box``,
  or a thick function's closure context.
  It may not alias natively Objective-C class instances.
* An ``AnyObject`` or ``Builtin.BridgeObject`` may alias any class instance,
  whether Swift or Objective-C, but may not alias non-class-instance
  heap objects.
* Two values of the same class type ``$C`` may alias. Two values of related
  class type ``$B`` and ``$D``, where there is a subclass relationship between
  ``$B`` and ``$D``, may alias. Two values of unrelated class types may not
  alias. This includes different instantiations of a generic class type, such
  as ``$C<Int>`` and ``$C<Float>``, which currently may never alias.
* Without whole-program visibility, values of archetype or protocol type must
  be assumed to potentially alias any class instance. Even if it is locally
  apparent that a class does not conform to that protocol, another component
  may introduce a conformance by an extension. Similarly, a generic class
  instance, such as ``$C<T>`` for archetype ``T``, must be assumed to
  potentially alias concrete instances of the generic type, such as
  ``$C<Int>``, because ``Int`` is a potential substitution for ``T``.

A violation of the above aliasing rules only results in undefined
behavior if the aliasing references are dereferenced within Swift code.
For example,
``__SwiftNativeNS[Array|Dictionary|String]`` classes alias with
``NS[Array|Dictionary|String]`` classes even though they are not
statically related. Since Swift never directly accesses stored
properties on the Foundation classes, this aliasing does not pose a
danger.

Typed Access TBAA
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Define a *typed access* of an address or reference as one of the following:

* Any instruction that performs a typed read or write operation upon the memory
  at the given location (e.x. ``load``, ``store``).
* Any instruction that yields a typed offset of the pointer by performing a
  typed projection operation (e.x. ``ref_element_addr``,
  ``tuple_element_addr``).

With limited exceptions, it is undefined behavior to perform a typed access to
an address or reference addressed memory is not bound to the relevant type.

This allows the optimizer to assume that two addresses cannot alias if
there does not exist a substitution of archetypes that could cause one
of the types to be the type of a subobject of the other. Additionally,
this applies to the types of the values from which the addresses were
derived via a typed projection.

Consider the following SIL::

  struct Element {
    var i: Int
  }
  struct S1 {
    var elt: Element
  }
  struct S2 {
    var elt: Element
  }
  %adr1 = struct_element_addr %ptr1 : $*S1, #S.elt
  %adr2 = struct_element_addr %ptr2 : $*S2, #S.elt

The optimizer may assume that ``%adr1`` does not alias with ``%adr2``
because the values that the addresses are derived from (``%ptr1`` and
``%ptr2``) have unrelated types. However, in the following example,
the optimizer cannot assume that ``%adr1`` does not alias with
``%adr2`` because ``%adr2`` is derived from a cast, and any subsequent
typed operations on the address will refer to the common ``Element`` type::

  %adr1 = struct_element_addr %ptr1 : $*S1, #S.elt
  %adr2 = pointer_to_address %ptr2 : $Builtin.RawPointer to $*Element

Exceptions to typed access TBAA rules are only allowed for blessed
alias-introducing operations. This permits limited type-punning. The only
current exception is the non-struct ``pointer_to_address`` variant. The
optimizer must be able to defensively determine that none of the *roots* of an
address are alias-introducing operations. An address root is the operation that
produces the address prior to applying any typed projections, indexing, or
casts. The following are valid address roots:

* Object allocation that generates an address, such as ``alloc_stack``
  and ``alloc_box``.

* Address-type function arguments. These are crucially *not* considered
  alias-introducing operations. It is illegal for the SIL optimizer to
  form a new function argument from an arbitrary address-type
  value. Doing so would require the optimizer to guarantee that the
  new argument is both has a non-alias-introducing address root and
  can be properly represented by the calling convention (address types
  do not have a fixed representation).

* A strict cast from an untyped pointer, ``pointer_to_address [strict]``. It is
  illegal for ``pointer_to_address [strict]`` to derive its address from an
  alias-introducing operation's value. A type punned address may only be
  produced from an opaque pointer via a non-strict ``pointer_to_address`` at the
  point of conversion.

Address-to-address casts, via ``unchecked_addr_cast``, transparently
forward their source's address root, just like typed projections.

Address-type basic block arguments can be conservatively considered
aliasing-introducing operations; they are uncommon enough not to
matter and may eventually be prohibited altogether.

Although some pointer producing intrinsics exist, they do not need to be
considered alias-introducing exceptions to TBAA rules. ``Builtin.inttoptr``
produces a ``Builtin.RawPointer`` which is not interesting because by definition
it may alias with everything. Similarly, the LLVM builtins ``Builtin.bitcast``
and ``Builtin.trunc|sext|zextBitCast`` cannot produce typed pointers. These
pointer values must be converted to an address via ``pointer_to_address`` before
typed access can occur. Whether the ``pointer_to_address`` is strict determines
whether aliasing may occur.

Memory may be rebound to an unrelated type. Addresses to unrelated types may
alias as long as typed access only occurs while memory is bound to the relevant
type. Consequently, the optimizer cannot outright assume that addresses accessed
as unrelated types are nonaliasing. For example, pointer comparison cannot be
eliminated simply because the two addresses derived from those pointers are
accessed as unrelated types at different program points.

Value Dependence
----------------

In general, analyses can assume that independent values are
independently assured of validity.  For example, a class method may
return a class reference::

  bb0(%0 : $MyClass):
    %1 = class_method %0 : $MyClass, #MyClass.foo
    %2 = apply %1(%0) : $@convention(method) (@guaranteed MyClass) -> @owned MyOtherClass
    // use of %2 goes here; no use of %1
    strong_release %2 : $MyOtherClass
    strong_release %1 : $MyClass

The optimizer is free to move the release of ``%1`` to immediately
after the call here, because ``%2`` can be assumed to be an
independently-managed value, and because Swift generally permits the
reordering of destructors.

However, some instructions do create values that are intrinsically
dependent on their operands.  For example, the result of
``ref_element_addr`` will become a dangling pointer if the base is
released too soon.  This is captured by the concept of *value dependence*,
and any transformation which can reorder of destruction of a value
around another operation must remain conscious of it.

A value ``%1`` is said to be *value-dependent* on a value ``%0`` if:

- ``%1`` is the result and ``%0`` is the first operand of one of the
  following instructions:

  - ``ref_element_addr``
  - ``struct_element_addr``
  - ``tuple_element_addr``
  - ``unchecked_take_enum_data_addr``
  - ``pointer_to_address``
  - ``address_to_pointer``
  - ``index_addr``
  - ``index_raw_pointer``
  - possibly some other conversions

- ``%1`` is the result of ``mark_dependence`` and ``%0`` is either of
  the operands.

- ``%1`` is the value address of a box allocation instruction of which
  ``%0`` is the box reference.

- ``%1`` is the result of a ``struct``, ``tuple``, or ``enum``
  instruction and ``%0`` is an operand.

- ``%1`` is the result of projecting out a subobject of ``%0``
  with ``tuple_extract``, ``struct_extract``, ``unchecked_enum_data``,
  ``select_enum``, or ``select_enum_addr``.

- ``%1`` is a basic block parameter and ``%0`` is the corresponding
  argument from a branch to that block.

- ``%1`` is the result of a ``load`` from ``%0``.  However, the value
  dependence is cut after the first attempt to manage the value of
  ``%1``, e.g. by retaining it.

- Transitivity: there exists a value ``%2`` which ``%1`` depends on
  and which depends on ``%0``.  However, transitivity does not apply
  to different subobjects of a struct, tuple, or enum.

Note, however, that an analysis is not required to track dependence
through memory.  Nor is it required to consider the possibility of
dependence being established "behind the scenes" by opaque code, such
as by a method returning an unsafe pointer to a class property.  The
dependence is required to be locally obvious in a function's SIL
instructions.  Precautions must be taken against this either by SIL
generators (by using ``mark_dependence`` appropriately) or by the user
(by using the appropriate intrinsics and attributes with unsafe
language or library features).

Only certain types of SIL value can carry value-dependence:

- SIL address types
- unmanaged pointer types:

  - ``@sil_unmanaged`` types
  - ``Builtin.RawPointer``
  - aggregates containing such a type, such as ``UnsafePointer``,
    possibly recursively

- non-trivial types (but they can be independently managed)

This rule means that casting a pointer to an integer type breaks
value-dependence.  This restriction is necessary so that reading an
``Int`` from a class doesn't force the class to be kept around!
A class holding an unsafe reference to an object must use some
sort of unmanaged pointer type to do so.

This rule does not include generic or resilient value types which
might contain unmanaged pointer types.  Analyses are free to assume
that e.g. a ``copy_addr`` of a generic or resilient value type yields
an independently-managed value.  The extension of value dependence to
types containing obvious unmanaged pointer types is an affordance to
make the use of such types more convenient; it does not shift the
ultimate responsibility for assuring the safety of unsafe
language/library features away from the user.

Copy-on-Write Representation
----------------------------

Copy-on-Write (COW) data structures are implemented by a reference to an object
which is copied on mutation in case it's not uniquely referenced.

A COW mutation sequence in SIL typically looks like::

    (%uniq, %buffer) = begin_cow_mutation %immutable_buffer : $BufferClass
    cond_br %uniq, bb_uniq, bb_not_unique
  bb_uniq:
    br bb_mutate(%buffer : $BufferClass)
  bb_not_unique:
    %copied_buffer = apply %copy_buffer_function(%buffer) : ...
    br bb_mutate(%copied_buffer : $BufferClass)
  bb_mutate(%mutable_buffer : $BufferClass):
    %field = ref_element_addr %mutable_buffer : $BufferClass, #BufferClass.Field
    store %value to %field : $ValueType
    %new_immutable_buffer = end_cow_mutation %buffer : $BufferClass

Loading from a COW data structure looks like::

    %field1 = ref_element_addr [immutable] %immutable_buffer : $BufferClass, #BufferClass.Field
    %value1 = load %field1 : $*FieldType
    ...
    %field2 = ref_element_addr [immutable] %immutable_buffer : $BufferClass, #BufferClass.Field
    %value2 = load %field2 : $*FieldType

The ``immutable`` attribute means that loading values from ``ref_element_addr``
and ``ref_tail_addr`` instructions, which have the *same* operand, are
equivalent.
In other words, it's guaranteed that a buffer's properties are not mutated
between two ``ref_element/tail_addr [immutable]`` as long as they have the
same buffer reference as operand.
This is even true if e.g. the buffer 'escapes' to an unknown function.


In the example above, ``%value2`` is equal to ``%value1`` because the operand
of both ``ref_element_addr`` instructions is the same ``%immutable_buffer``.
Conceptually, the content of a COW buffer object can be seen as part of
the same *static* (immutable) SSA value as the buffer reference.

The lifetime of a COW value is strictly separated into *mutable* and
*immutable* regions by ``begin_cow_mutation`` and
``end_cow_mutation`` instructions::

  %b1 = alloc_ref $BufferClass
  // The buffer %b1 is mutable
  %b2 = end_cow_mutation %b1 : $BufferClass
  // The buffer %b2 is immutable
  (%u1, %b3) = begin_cow_mutation %b1 : $BufferClass
  // The buffer %b3 is mutable
  %b4 = end_cow_mutation %b3 : $BufferClass
  // The buffer %b4 is immutable
  ...

Both, ``begin_cow_mutation`` and ``end_cow_mutation``, consume their operand
and return the new buffer as an *owned* value.
The ``begin_cow_mutation`` will compile down to a uniqueness check and
``end_cow_mutation`` will compile to a no-op.

Although the physical pointer value of the returned buffer reference is the
same as the operand, it's important to generate a *new* buffer reference in
SIL. It prevents the optimizer from moving buffer accesses from a *mutable* into
a *immutable* region and vice versa.

Because the buffer *content* is conceptually part of the
buffer *reference* SSA value, there must be a new buffer reference every time
the buffer content is mutated.

To illustrate this, let's look at an example, where a COW value is mutated in
a loop. As with a scalar SSA value, also mutating a COW buffer will enforce a
phi-argument in the loop header block (for simplicity the code for copying a
non-unique buffer is not shown)::

  header_block(%b_phi : $BufferClass):
    (%u, %b_mutate) = begin_cow_mutation %b_phi : $BufferClass
    // Store something to %b_mutate
    %b_immutable = end_cow_mutation %b_mutate : $BufferClass
    cond_br %loop_cond, exit_block, backedge_block
  backedge_block:
    br header_block(b_immutable : $BufferClass)
  exit_block:

Two adjacent ``begin_cow_mutation`` and ``end_cow_mutation`` instructions
don't need to be in the same function.

Stack discipline
----------------

Certain instructions in the SIL instruction set are identified as
*stack allocation instructions* or *stack deallocation instructions*.
These instructions jointly participate in a set of rules called the
*stack allocation discipline*, designed to allow SIL functions to easily
and safely dynamically allocate and deallocate memory in a scoped
fashion on the stack.

All stack deallocation instructions have an operand which identifies
their *paired* stack allocation instruction.  This operand must always
be exactly the result of a stack allocation instruction, with no
intervening conversions, basic block arguments, or other abstractions.
A single stack allocation instruction may be paired with any number of
stack deallocation instructions.  It can even be paired with no
instructions at all; by the rules below, this can only happen in
non-terminating functions.

- At any point in a SIL function, there is an ordered list of
  stack allocation instructions called the *active allocations list*.

- The active allocations list is defined to be empty at the initial
  point of the entry block of the function.

- The active allocations list is required to be the same at the
  initial point of any successor block as it is at the final point
  of any predecessor block.  Note that this also requires all
  predecessors/successors of a given block to have the same
  final/initial active allocations lists.

  In other words, the set of active stack allocations must be the same
  at a given place in the function no matter how it was reached.

- The active allocations list for the point following a stack allocation
  instruction is defined to be the result of adding that instruction to
  the end of the active allocations list for the point preceding
  the instruction.

- The active allocations list for the point following a stack deallocation
  instruction is defined to be the result of removing the instruction
  from the end of the active allocations list for the point preceding
  the instruction.  The active allocations list for the preceding point
  is required to be non-empty, and the last instruction in it must be
  paired with the deallocation instruction.

  In other words, all stack allocations must be deallocated in last-in,
  first-out order, aka stack order.

- The active allocations list for the point following any other
  instruction is defined to be the same as the active allocations list
  for the point preceding the instruction.

- The active allocations list is required to be empty prior to
  ``return`` or ``throw`` instructions.

  In other words, all stack allocations must be deallocated prior
  to exiting the function.

Note that these rules implicitly prevent an allocation instruction
from still being active when it is reached.

The control-flow rule forbids certain patterns that would theoretically
be useful, such as conditionally performing an allocation around an
operation.  SIL generally makes this sort of pattern somewhat difficult
to use, however, as it is illegal to locally abstract over addresses, and
therefore a conditional allocation cannot be used in the intermediate
operation anyway.

Structural type matching for pack indices
-----------------------------------------

In order to catch type errors in applying pack indices, SIL
requires the projected element types of pack-indexing operations
to be *structurally well-typed* for the given pack type and index.

First, the projected element type must match the direct-ness of the
indexed pack type: if the pack is indirect, the project element type
must be an address type, and otherwise it must be an object type.

Second, the pack index must be a *pack indexing instruction* (one
of ``scalar_pack_index``, ``pack_pack_index``, or ``dynamic_pack_index``),
and it must index into a pack type with the same shape as the indexed
pack type.

Third, additional restrictions must be satisifed depending on which
pack indexing instruction the pack index is:

- For ``scalar_pack_index``, the projected element type must be the
  same type as the scalar type at the given index in the pack type.
  (It must be a scalar type because of the shape restriction above.)

- For ``pack_pack_index``, the projected element type must be structurally
  well-typed for a slice of the pack type (as specified by the
  instruction) at the pack sub-index operand.

- For ``dynamic_pack_index``, consider each opened pack element archetype
  in the projected element type that is opened by an ``open_pack_element``
  instruction whose pack index operand is the same ``dynamic_pack_index``
  instruction.  Because the pack substitutions in ``open_pack_element``
  must have the same shape as the indexed pack type of its pack index
  operand, by transitivity they must have the same shape as the indexed
  pack type of the pack-indexing operation.  Then for each component of
  this shape, the corresponding element component (or the pattern type
  for a projection component) of the indexed pack type must equal
  the result of applying a substitution to the projected element type
  which replaces any opened pack element archetype with the
  corresponding element component (pattern type for a projection component)
  of the pack substitution for that archetype in the ``open_pack_element``
  which introduced it.

  For example, if the indexed pack type is
  ``Pack{Optional<Int>, Optional<Float>, repeat Optional<each T>}``,
  a projected element type is ``$*Optional<@pack_element("1234") U>`` is
  structurally well-typed for a ``dynamic_pack_index`` pack index
  if ``1234`` is the UUID of an ``open_pack_element`` indexed by the
  same ``dynamic_pack_index`` instruction and the pack substitution
  corresponding to ``U`` in that ``open_pack_element`` is
  ``Pack{Int, Float, repeat each T}``.


Instruction Set
---------------

Allocation and Deallocation
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

These instructions allocate and deallocate memory.

alloc_stack
```````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'alloc_stack' alloc-stack-option* sil-type (',' debug-var-attr)*
  alloc-stack-option ::= '[dynamic_lifetime]'
  alloc-stack-option ::= '[lexical]'
  alloc-stack-option ::= '[moveable_value_debuginfo]'

  %1 = alloc_stack $T
  // %1 has type $*T

Allocates uninitialized memory that is sufficiently aligned on the stack
to contain a value of type ``T``. The result of the instruction is the address
of the allocated memory.

``alloc_stack`` always allocates memory on the stack even for runtime-sized type.

``alloc_stack`` is a stack allocation instruction.  See the section above
on stack discipline.  The corresponding stack deallocation instruction is
``dealloc_stack``.

The ``dynamic_lifetime`` attribute specifies that the initialization and
destruction of the stored value cannot be verified at compile time.
This is the case, e.g. for conditionally initialized objects.

The optional ``lexical`` attribute specifies that the storage corresponds to a
local variable in the Swift source.

The optional ``moveable_value_debuginfo`` attribute specifies that when emitting
debug info, the code generator can not assume that the value in the alloc_stack
can be semantically valid over the entire function frame when emitting debug
info. NOTE: This is implicitly set to true if the alloc_stack's type is
noncopyable. This is just done to make SIL less verbose.

The memory is not retainable. To allocate a retainable box for a value
type, use ``alloc_box``.

``T`` must not be a pack type.  To allocate a pack, use ``alloc_pack``.

alloc_pack
``````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'alloc_pack' sil-type

  %1 = alloc_pack $Pack{Int, Float, repeat each T}
  // %1 has type $*Pack{Int, Float, repeat each T}

Allocates uninitialized memory on the stack for a value pack of the given
type, which must be a pack type.  The result of the instruction is the
address of the allocated memory.

``alloc_pack`` is a stack allocation instruction.  See the section above
on stack discipline.  The corresponding stack deallocation instruction is
``dealloc_pack``.

alloc_pack_metadata
```````````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'alloc_pack_metadata' $()

Inserted as the last SIL lowering pass of IRGen, indicates that the next instruction
may have on-stack pack metadata allocated on its behalf.

Notionally, ``alloc_pack_metadata`` is a stack allocation instruction.  See the
section above on stack discipline.  The corresponding stack deallocation
instruction is ``dealloc_pack_metadata``.

alloc_ref
`````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'alloc_ref'
                        ('[' 'bare' ']')?
                        ('[' 'objc' ']')?
                        ('[' 'stack' ']')?
                        ('[' 'tail_elems' sil-type '*' sil-operand ']')*
                        sil-type

  %1 = alloc_ref [stack] $T
  %1 = alloc_ref [tail_elems $E * %2 : Builtin.Word] $T
  // $T must be a reference type
  // %1 has type $T
  // $E is the type of the tail-allocated elements
  // %2 must be of a builtin integer type

Allocates an object of reference type ``T``. The object will be initialized
with retain count 1; its state will be otherwise uninitialized. The
optional ``objc`` attribute indicates that the object should be
allocated using Objective-C's allocation methods (``+allocWithZone:``).

The optional ``stack`` attribute indicates that the object can be allocated
on the stack instead on the heap. In this case the instruction must be
balanced with a ``dealloc_stack_ref`` instruction to mark the end of the
object's lifetime.
Note that the ``stack`` attribute only specifies that stack allocation is
possible. The final decision on stack allocation is done during llvm IR
generation. This is because the decision also depends on the object size,
which is not necessarily known at SIL level.

The ``bare`` attribute indicates that the object header is not used throughout
the lifetime of the object. This means, no reference counting operations are
performed on the object and its metadata is not used. The header of bare
objects doesn't need to be initialized.

The optional ``tail_elems`` attributes specifies the amount of space to be
reserved for tail-allocated arrays of given element types and element counts.
If there are more than one ``tail_elems`` attributes then the tail arrays are
allocated in the specified order.
The count-operand must be of a builtin integer type.
The instructions ``ref_tail_addr`` and ``tail_addr`` can be used to project
the tail elements.
The ``objc`` attribute cannot be used together with ``tail_elems``.

alloc_ref_dynamic
`````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'alloc_ref_dynamic'
                        ('[' 'objc' ']')?
                        ('[' 'tail_elems' sil-type '*' sil-operand ']')*
                        sil-operand ',' sil-type

  %1 = alloc_ref_dynamic %0 : $@thick T.Type, $T
  %1 = alloc_ref_dynamic [objc] %0 : $@objc_metatype T.Type, $T
  %1 = alloc_ref_dynamic [tail_elems $E * %2 : Builtin.Word] %0 : $@thick T.Type, $T
  // $T must be a class type
  // %1 has type $T
  // $E is the type of the tail-allocated elements
  // %2 must be of a builtin integer type

Allocates an object of class type ``T`` or a subclass thereof. The
dynamic type of the resulting object is specified via the metatype
value ``%0``. The object will be initialized with retain count 1; its
state will be otherwise uninitialized.

The optional ``tail_elems`` and ``objc`` attributes have the same effect as
for ``alloc_ref``. See ``alloc_ref`` for details.

alloc_box
`````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'alloc_box' alloc-box-option* sil-type (',' debug-var-attr)*
  alloc-box-option ::= moveable_value_debuginfo

  %1 = alloc_box $T
  //   %1 has type $@box T

Allocates a reference-counted ``@box`` on the heap large enough to hold a value
of type ``T``, along with a retain count and any other metadata required by the
runtime.  The result of the instruction is the reference-counted ``@box``
reference that owns the box. The ``project_box`` instruction is used to retrieve
the address of the value inside the box.

The box will be initialized with a retain count of 1; the storage will be
uninitialized. The box owns the contained value, and releasing it to a retain
count of zero destroys the contained value as if by ``destroy_addr``.
Releasing a box is undefined behavior if the box's value is uninitialized.
To deallocate a box whose value has not been initialized, ``dealloc_box``
should be used.

The optional ``moveable_value_debuginfo`` attribute specifies that when emitting
debug info, the code generator can not assume that the value in the alloc_stack
can be semantically valid over the entire function frame when emitting debug
info. NOTE: This is implicitly set to true if the alloc_stack's type is
noncopyable. This is just done to make SIL less verbose.

alloc_global
````````````

::

   sil-instruction ::= 'alloc_global' sil-global-name

   alloc_global @foo

Initialize the storage for a global variable. This instruction has
undefined behavior if the global variable has already been initialized.

The type operand must be a lowered object type.

get_async_continuation
``````````````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'get_async_continuation' '[throws]'? sil-type

  %0 = get_async_continuation $T
  %0 = get_async_continuation [throws] $U

Begins a suspension of an ``@async`` function. This instruction can only be
used inside an ``@async`` function. The result of the instruction is an
``UnsafeContinuation<T>`` value, where ``T`` is the formal type argument to the
instruction, or an ``UnsafeThrowingContinuation<T>`` if the instruction
carries the ``[throws]`` attribute. ``T`` must be a loadable type.
The continuation must be consumed by a ``await_async_continuation`` terminator
on all paths. Between ``get_async_continuation`` and
``await_async_continuation``, the following restrictions apply:

- The function cannot ``return``, ``throw``, ``yield``, or ``unwind``.
- There cannot be nested suspend points; namely, the function cannot call
  another ``@async`` function, nor can it initiate another suspend point with
  ``get_async_continuation``.

The function suspends execution when the matching ``await_async_continuation``
terminator is reached, and resumes execution when the continuation is resumed.
The continuation resumption operation takes a value of type ``T`` which is
passed back into the function when it resumes execution in the ``await_async_continuation`` instruction's
``resume`` successor block. If the instruction
has the ``[throws]`` attribute, it can also be resumed in an error state, in
which case the matching ``await_async_continuation`` instruction must also
have an ``error`` successor.

Within the enclosing SIL function, the result continuation is consumed by the
``await_async_continuation``, and cannot be referenced after the
``await_async_continuation`` executes. Dynamically, the continuation value must
be resumed exactly once in the course of the program's execution; it is
undefined behavior to resume the continuation more than once. Conversely,
failing to resume the continuation will leave the suspended async coroutine
hung in its suspended state, leaking any resources it may be holding.

get_async_continuation_addr
```````````````````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'get_async_continuation_addr' '[throws]'? sil-type ',' sil-operand

  %1 = get_async_continuation_addr $T, %0 : $*T
  %1 = get_async_continuation_addr [throws] $U, %0 : $*U

Begins a suspension of an ``@async`` function, like ``get_async_continuation``,
additionally binding a specific memory location for receiving the value
when the result continuation is resumed.  The operand must be an address whose
type is the maximally-abstracted lowered type of the formal resume type. The
memory must be uninitialized, and must remain allocated until the matching
``await_async_continuation`` instruction(s) consuming the result continuation
have executed. The behavior is otherwise the same as
``get_async_continuation``, and the same restrictions apply on code appearing
between ``get_async_continuation_addr`` and ``await_async_continuation`` as
apply between ``get_async_continuation`` and ``await_async_continuation``.
Additionally, the state of the memory referenced by the operand is indefinite
between the execution of ``get_async_continuation_addr`` and
``await_async_continuation``, and it is undefined behavior to read or modify
the memory during this time. After the ``await_async_continuation`` resumes
normally to its ``resume`` successor, the memory referenced by the operand is
initialized with the resume value, and that value is then owned by the current
function. If ``await_async_continuation`` instead resumes to its ``error``
successor, then the memory remains uninitialized.

hop_to_executor
```````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'hop_to_executor' sil-operand

  hop_to_executor %0 : $T

  // $T must be Builtin.Executor or conform to the Actor protocol

Ensures that all instructions, which need to run on the actor's executor
actually run on that executor.
This instruction can only be used inside an ``@async`` function.

Checks if the current executor is the one which is bound to the operand actor.
If not, begins a suspension point and enqueues the continuation to the executor
which is bound to the operand actor.

SIL generation emits this instruction with operands of actor type as
well as of type ``Builtin.Executor``.  The former are expected to be
lowered by the SIL pipeline, so that IR generation only operands of type
``Builtin.Executor`` remain.

The operand is a guaranteed operand, i.e. not consumed.

extract_executor
````````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'extract_executor' sil-operand

  %1 = extract_executor %0 : $T
  // $T must be Builtin.Executor or conform to the Actor protocol
  // %1 will be of type Builtin.Executor

Extracts the executor from the executor or actor operand. SIL generation
emits this instruction to produce executor values when needed (e.g.,
to provide to a runtime function). It will be lowered away by the SIL
pipeline.

The operand is a guaranteed operand, i.e. not consumed.

dealloc_stack
`````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'dealloc_stack' sil-operand

  dealloc_stack %0 : $*T
  // %0 must be of $*T type

Deallocates memory previously allocated by ``alloc_stack``. The
allocated value in memory must be uninitialized or destroyed prior to
being deallocated.

``dealloc_stack`` is a stack deallocation instruction.  See the section
on Stack Discipline above.  The operand must be an ``alloc_stack``
instruction.

dealloc_pack
````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'dealloc_pack' sil-operand

  dealloc_pack %0 : $*Pack{Int, Float, repeat each T}
  // %0 must be the result of `alloc_pack $Pack{Int, Float, repeat each T}`

Deallocates memory for a pack value previously allocated by ``alloc_pack``.
If the pack elements are direct, they must be uninitialized or destroyed
prior to being deallocated.

``dealloc_pack`` is a stack deallocation instruction.  See the section
on Stack Discipline above.  The operand must be an ``alloc_pack``
instruction.

dealloc_pack_metadata
`````````````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'dealloc_pack_metadata' sil-operand

  dealloc_pack_metadata $0 : $*()

Inserted as the last SIL lowering pass of IRGen, indicates that the on-stack
pack metadata emitted on behalf of its operand (actually on behalf of the
instruction after its operand) must be cleaned up here.

``dealloc_pack_metadata`` is a stack deallocation instruction.  See the section
on Stack Discipline above.  The operand must be an ``alloc_pack_metadata``
instruction.

dealloc_box
```````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'dealloc_box' sil-operand

  dealloc_box %0 : $@box T

Deallocates a box, bypassing the reference counting mechanism. The box
variable must have a retain count of one. The boxed type must match the
type passed to the corresponding ``alloc_box`` exactly, or else
undefined behavior results.

This does not destroy the boxed value. The contents of the
value must have been fully uninitialized or destroyed before
``dealloc_box`` is applied.

project_box
```````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'project_box' sil-operand

  %1 = project_box %0 : $@box T

  // %1 has type $*T

Given a ``@box T`` reference, produces the address of the value inside the box.

dealloc_stack_ref
`````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'dealloc_stack_ref' sil-operand

  dealloc_stack_ref %0 : $T
  // $T must be a class type
  // %0 must be an 'alloc_ref [stack]' instruction

Marks the deallocation of the stack space for an ``alloc_ref [stack]``.

dealloc_ref
```````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'dealloc_ref' sil-operand

  dealloc_ref %0 : $T
  // $T must be a class type

Deallocates an uninitialized class type instance, bypassing the reference
counting mechanism.

The type of the operand must match the allocated type exactly, or else
undefined behavior results.

The instance must have a retain count of one.

This does not destroy stored properties of the instance. The contents
of stored properties must be fully uninitialized at the time
``dealloc_ref`` is applied.

The ``stack`` attribute indicates that the instruction is the balanced
deallocation of its operand which must be a ``alloc_ref [stack]``.
In this case the instruction marks the end of the object's lifetime but
has no other effect.

dealloc_partial_ref
```````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'dealloc_partial_ref' sil-operand sil-metatype

  dealloc_partial_ref %0 : $T, %1 : $U.Type
  // $T must be a class type
  // $T must be a subclass of U

Deallocates a partially-initialized class type instance, bypassing
the reference counting mechanism.

The type of the operand must be a supertype of the allocated type, or
else undefined behavior results.

The instance must have a retain count of one.

All stored properties in classes more derived than the given metatype
value must be initialized, and all other stored properties must be
uninitialized. The initialized stored properties are destroyed before
deallocating the memory for the instance.

This does not destroy the reference type instance. The contents of the
heap object must have been fully uninitialized or destroyed before
``dealloc_ref`` is applied.

Debug Information
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Debug information is generally associated with allocations (alloc_stack or
alloc_box) by having a Decl node attached to the allocation with a SILLocation.
For declarations that have no allocation we have explicit instructions for
doing this.  This is used by 'let' declarations, which bind a value to a name
and for var decls who are promoted into registers.  The decl they refer to is
attached to the instruction with a SILLocation.

debug_value
```````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= debug_value sil-debug-value-option* sil-operand (',' debug-var-attr)* advanced-debug-var-attr* (',' 'expr' debug-info-expr)?
  sil-debug-value-option ::= [poison]
  sil-debug-value-option ::= [moveable_value_debuginfo]
  sil-debug-value-option ::= [trace]

  debug_value %1 : $Int

This indicates that the value of a declaration has changed value to the
specified operand.  The declaration in question is identified by either the
SILLocation attached to the debug_value instruction or the SILLocation specified
in the advanced debug variable attributes.

If the ``moveable_value_debuginfo`` flag is set, then one knows that the
debug_value's operand is moved at some point of the program, so one can not
model the debug_value using constructs that assume that the value is live for
the entire function (e.x.: llvm.dbg.declare). NOTE: This is implicitly set to
true if the alloc_stack's type is noncopyable. This is just done to make SIL
less verbose.

::

   debug-var-attr ::= 'var'
   debug-var-attr ::= 'let'
   debug-var-attr ::= 'name' string-literal
   debug-var-attr ::= 'argno' integer-literal
   debug-var-attr ::= 'implicit'

There are a number of attributes that provide details about the source
variable that is being described, including the name of the
variable. For function and closure arguments ``argno`` is the number
of the function argument starting with 1. A compiler-generated source
variable will be marked ``implicit`` and optimizers are free to remove
it even in -Onone.

If the '[poison]' flag is set, then all references within this debug
value will be overwritten with a sentinel at this point in the
program. This is used in debug builds when shortening non-trivial
value lifetimes to ensure the debugger cannot inspect invalid
memory. ``debug_value`` instructions with the poison flag are not
generated until OSSA is lowered. They are not expected to be serialized
within the module, and the pipeline is not expected to do any
significant code motion after lowering.

::

  advanced-debug-var-attr ::= '(' 'name' string-literal (',' sil-instruction-source-info)? ')'
  advanced-debug-var-attr ::= 'type' sil-type

Advanced debug variable attributes represent source locations and the type of
the source variable when it was originally declared. It is useful when
we're indirectly associating the SSA value with the source variable
(via SIL DIExpression, for example) in which case SSA value's type is different
from that of source variable.

::

  debug-info-expr   ::= di-expr-operand (':' di-expr-operand)*
  di-expr-operand   ::= di-expr-operator (':' sil-operand)*
  di-expr-operator  ::= 'op_fragment'
  di-expr-operator  ::= 'op_deref'

SIL debug info expression (SIL DIExpression) is a powerful method to connect SSA
value with the source variable in an indirect fashion. Di-expression in SIL
uses a stack based execution model to evaluate the expression and apply on
the associated (SIL) SSA value before connecting it with the debug variable.
For instance, given the following SIL code::

  debug_value %a : $*Int, name "x", expr op_deref

It means: "You can get the value of source variable 'x' by *dereferencing*
SSA value ``%a``". The ``op_deref`` is a SIL DIExpression operator that represents
"dereference". If there are multiple SIL DIExpression operators (or arguments), they
are evaluated from left to right::

  debug_value %b : $**Int, name "y", expr op_deref:op_deref

In the snippet above, two ``op_deref`` operators will be applied on SSA value
``%b`` sequentially.

Note that normally when the SSA value has an address type, there will be a ``op_deref``
in the SIL DIExpression. Because there is no pointer in Swift so you always need to
dereference an address-type SSA value to get the value of a source variable.
However, if the SSA value is a ``alloc_stack``, the ``debug_value`` is used to indicate
the *declaration* of a source variable. Or, you can say, used to specify the location
(memory address) of the source variable. Therefore, we don't need to add a ``op_deref``
in this case::

  %a = alloc_stack $Int, ...
  debug_value %a : $*Int, name "my_var"


The ``op_fragment`` operator is used to specify the SSA value of a specific
field in an aggregate-type source variable. This SIL DIExpression operator takes
a field declaration -- which references the desired sub-field in source variable
-- as its argument. Here is an example::

  struct MyStruct {
    var x: Int
    var y: Int
  }
  ...
  debug_value %1 : $Int, var, (name "the_struct", loc "file.swift":8:7), type $MyStruct, expr op_fragment:#MyStruct.y, loc "file.swift":9:4

In the snippet above, source variable "the_struct" has an aggregate type ``$MyStruct`` and we use a SIL DIExpression with ``op_fragment`` operator to associate ``%1`` to the ``y`` member variable (via the ``#MyStruct.y`` directive) inside "the_struct".
Note that the extra source location directive follows right after ``name "the_struct"`` indicate that "the_struct" was originally declared in line 8, but not until line 9 -- the current ``debug_value`` instruction's source location -- does member ``y`` got updated with SSA value ``%1``.

It is worth noting that a SIL DIExpression is similar to
`!DIExpression <https://www.llvm.org/docs/LangRef.html#diexpression>`_ in LLVM debug
info metadata. While LLVM represents ``!DIExpression`` are a list of 64-bit integers,
SIL DIExpression can have elements with various types, like AST nodes or strings.

The ``[trace]`` flag is available for compiler unit testing. It is not produced during normal compilation. It is used combination with internal logging and optimization controls to select specific values to trace or to transform. For example, liveness analysis combines all "traced" values into a single live range with multiple definitions. This exposes corner cases that cannot be represented by passing valid SIL through the pipeline.

debug_step
``````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= debug_step

  debug_step

This instruction is inserted by Onone optimizations as a replacement for deleted instructions to
ensure that it's possible to set a breakpoint on its location.

It is code-generated to a NOP instruction.

Testing
~~~~~~~

test_specification
``````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'test_specification' string-literal

  test_specification "parsing @trace[3] @function[other].block[2].instruction[1]"

Exists only for writing FileCheck tests.  Specifies a list of test arguments
which should be used in order to run a particular test "in the context" of the
function containing the instruction.

Parsing of these test arguments is done via ``parseTestArgumentsFromSpecification``.

The following types of test arguments are supported:

- boolean: true false
- unsigned integer: 0...ULONG_MAX
- string
- function: @function <-- the current function
            @function[uint] <-- function at index ``uint``
            @function[name] <-- function named ``name``
- block: @block <-- the block containing the test_specification instruction
         @block[+uint] <-- the block ``uint`` blocks after the containing block
         @block[-uint] <-- the block ``uint`` blocks before the containing block
         @block[uint] <-- the block at index ``uint``
         @{function}.{block} <-- the indicated block in the indicated function
         Example: @function[foo].block[2]
- trace: @trace <-- the first ``debug_value [trace]`` in the current function
         @trace[uint] <-- the ``debug_value [trace]`` at index ``uint``
         @{function}.{trace} <-- the indicated trace in the indicated function
         Example: @function[bar].trace
- argument: @argument <-_ the first argument of the current block
            @argument[uint] <-- the argument at index ``uint`` of the current block
            @{block}.{argument} <-- the indicated argument in the indicated block
            @{function}.{argument} <-- the indicated argument in the entry block of the indicated function
- instruction: @instruction <-- the instruction after* the test_specification instruction
               @instruction[+uint] <-- the instruction ``uint`` instructions after* the test_specification instruction
               @instruction[-uint] <-- the instruction ``uint`` instructions before* the test_specification instruction
               @instruction[uint] <-- the instruction at index ``uint``
               @{function}.{instruction} <-- the indicated instruction in the indicated function
               Example: @function[baz].instruction[19]
               @{block}.{instruction} <-- the indicated instruction in the indicated block
               Example: @function[bam].block.instruction
- operand: @operand <-- the first operand
           @operand[uint] <-- the operand at index ``uint``
           @{instruction}.{operand} <-- the indicated operand of the indicated instruction
           Example: @block[19].instruction[2].operand[3]
           Example: @function[2].instruction.operand

* Not counting instructions that are deleted when processing functions for tests.
  The following instructions currently are deleted:

      test_specification
      debug_value [trace]


Profiling
~~~~~~~~~

increment_profiler_counter
``````````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'increment_profiler_counter' int-literal ',' string-literal ',' 'num_counters' int-literal ',' 'hash' int-literal

  increment_profiler_counter 1, "$foo", num_counters 3, hash 0

Increments a given profiler counter for a given PGO function name. This is
lowered to the ``llvm.instrprof.increment`` LLVM intrinsic. This instruction
is emitted when profiling is enabled, and enables features such as code coverage
and profile-guided optimization.

Accessing Memory
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

load
````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'load' sil-operand

  %1 = load %0 : $*T
  // %0 must be of a $*T address type for loadable type $T
  // %1 will be of type $T

Loads the value at address ``%0`` from memory. ``T`` must be a loadable type.
This does not affect the reference count, if any, of the loaded value; the
value must be retained explicitly if necessary. It is undefined behavior to
load from uninitialized memory or to load from an address that points to
deallocated storage.

store
`````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'store' sil-value 'to' sil-operand

  store %0 to %1 : $*T
  // $T must be a loadable type

Stores the value ``%0`` to memory at address ``%1``.  The type of %1 is ``*T``
and the type of ``%0`` is ``T``, which must be a loadable type. This will
overwrite the memory at ``%1``. If ``%1`` already references a value that
requires ``release`` or other cleanup, that value must be loaded before being
stored over and cleaned up. It is undefined behavior to store to an address
that points to deallocated storage.

load_borrow
```````````

::

   sil-instruction ::= 'load_borrow' sil-value

   %1 = load_borrow %0 : $*T
   // $T must be a loadable type

Loads the value ``%1`` from the memory location ``%0``. The `load_borrow`_
instruction creates a borrowed scope in which a read-only borrow value ``%1``
can be used to read the value stored in ``%0``. The end of scope is delimited
by an `end_borrow`_ instruction. All `load_borrow`_ instructions must be
paired with exactly one `end_borrow`_ instruction along any path through the
program. Until `end_borrow`_, it is illegal to invalidate or store to ``%0``.

store_borrow
````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'store_borrow' sil-value 'to' sil-operand

  %2 = store_borrow %0 to %1 : $*T
  // $T must be a loadable type
  // %1 must be an alloc_stack $T
  // %2 is the return address

Stores the value ``%0`` to a stack location ``%1``, which must be an
``alloc_stack $T``.
The stack location must not be modified by other instructions than
``store_borrow``.
All uses of the store_borrow destination ```%1`` should be via the store_borrow
return address ``%2`` except dealloc_stack.
The stored value is alive until the ``end_borrow``. During its lifetime, the
stored value must not be modified or destroyed.
The source value ``%0`` is borrowed (i.e. not copied) and its borrow scope
must outlive the lifetime of the stored value.

Notionally, the outer borrow scope ensures that there's something to be
addressed.  The inner borrow scope provides the address to work with.

begin_borrow
````````````

::

   sil-instruction ::= 'begin_borrow' '[lexical]'? sil-operand

   %1 = begin_borrow %0 : $T

Given a value ``%0`` with `Owned`_ or `Guaranteed`_ ownership, produces a new
same typed value with `Guaranteed`_ ownership: ``%1``. ``%1`` is guaranteed to
have a lifetime ending use (e.x.: `end_borrow`_) along all paths that do not end
in `Dead End Blocks`_. This `begin_borrow`_ and the lifetime ending uses of
``%1`` are considered to be liveness requiring uses of ``%0`` and as such in the
region in between this borrow and its lifetime ending use, ``%0`` must be
live. This makes sense semantically since ``%1`` is modeling a new value with a
dependent lifetime on ``%0``.

The optional ``lexical`` attribute specifies that the operand corresponds to a
local variable in the Swift source, so special care must be taken when moving
the end_borrow.

This instruction is only valid in functions in Ownership SSA form.

end_borrow
``````````

::

   sil-instruction ::= 'end_borrow' sil-operand

   // somewhere earlier
   // %1 = begin_borrow %0
   end_borrow %1 : $T

Ends the scope for which the `Guaranteed`_ ownership possessing SILValue ``%1``
is borrowed from the SILValue ``%0``. Must be paired with at most 1 borrowing
instruction (like `load_borrow`_, `begin_borrow`_) along any path through the
program. In the region in between the borrow instruction and the `end_borrow`_,
the original SILValue can not be modified. This means that:

1. If ``%0`` is an address, ``%0`` can not be written to.
2. If ``%0`` is a non-trivial value, ``%0`` can not be destroyed.

We require that ``%1`` and ``%0`` have the same type ignoring SILValueCategory.

This instruction is only valid in functions in Ownership SSA form.

end_lifetime
````````````

::

   sil-instruction ::= 'end_lifetime' sil-operand

This instruction signifies the end of it's operand's lifetime to the ownership
verifier. It is inserted by the compiler in instances where it could be illegal
to insert a destroy operation. Ex: if the sil-operand had an undef value.

This instruction is valid only in OSSA and is lowered to a no-op when lowering
to non-OSSA.

assign
``````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'assign' sil-value 'to' sil-operand

  assign %0 to %1 : $*T
  // $T must be a loadable type

Represents an abstract assignment of the value ``%0`` to memory at address
``%1`` without specifying whether it is an initialization or a normal store.
The type of %1 is ``*T`` and the type of ``%0`` is ``T``, which must be a
loadable type. This will overwrite the memory at ``%1`` and destroy the value
currently held there.

The purpose of the `assign`_ instruction is to simplify the
definitive initialization analysis on loadable variables by removing
what would otherwise appear to be a load and use of the current value.
It is produced by SILGen, which cannot know which assignments are
meant to be initializations.  If it is deemed to be an initialization,
it can be replaced with a `store`_; otherwise, it must be replaced
with a sequence that also correctly destroys the current value.

This instruction is only valid in Raw SIL and is rewritten as appropriate
by the definitive initialization pass.

assign_by_wrapper
``````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'assign_by_wrapper' sil-operand 'to' mode? sil-operand ',' 'init' sil-operand ',' 'set' sil-operand

  mode ::= '[init]' | '[assign]' | '[assign_wrapped_value]'

  assign_by_wrapper %0 : $S to %1 : $*T, init %2 : $F, set %3 : $G
  // $S can be a value or address type
  // $T must be the type of a property wrapper.
  // $F must be a function type, taking $S as a single argument (or multiple arguments in case of a tuple) and returning $T
  // $G must be a function type, taking $S as a single argument (or multiple arguments in case of a tuple) and without a return value

Similar to the `assign`_ instruction, but the assignment is done via a
delegate.

Initially the instruction is created with no mode. Once the mode is decided
(by the definitive initialization pass), the instruction is lowered as follows:

If the mode is ``initialization``, the function ``%2`` is called with ``%0`` as
argument. The result is stored to ``%1``. In case of an address type, ``%1`` is
simply passed as a first out-argument to ``%2``.

The ``assign`` mode works similar to ``initialization``, except that the
destination is "assigned" rather than "initialized". This means that the
existing value in the destination is destroyed before the new value is
stored.

If the mode is ``assign_wrapped_value``, the function ``%3`` is called with
``%0`` as argument. As ``%3`` is a setter (e.g. for the property in the
containing nominal type), the destination address ``%1`` is not used in this
case.

This instruction is only valid in Raw SIL and is rewritten as appropriate
by the definitive initialization pass.

mark_uninitialized
``````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'mark_uninitialized' '[' mu_kind ']' sil-operand
  mu_kind ::= 'var'
  mu_kind ::= 'rootself'
  mu_kind ::= 'crossmodulerootself'
  mu_kind ::= 'derivedself'
  mu_kind ::= 'derivedselfonly'
  mu_kind ::= 'delegatingself'
  mu_kind ::= 'delegatingselfallocated'

  %2 = mark_uninitialized [var] %1 : $*T
  // $T must be an address

Indicates that a symbolic memory location is uninitialized, and must be
explicitly initialized before it escapes or before the current function returns.
This instruction returns its operands, and all accesses within the function must
be performed against the return value of the mark_uninitialized instruction.

The kind of mark_uninitialized instruction specifies the type of data
the mark_uninitialized instruction refers to:

- ``var``: designates the start of a normal variable live range
- ``rootself``: designates ``self`` in a struct, enum, or root class
- ``crossmodulerootself``: same as ``rootself``, but in a case where it's not
    really safe to treat ``self`` as a root because the original module might add
    more stored properties. This is only used for Swift 4 compatibility.
- ``derivedself``: designates ``self`` in a derived (non-root) class
- ``derivedselfonly``: designates ``self`` in a derived (non-root) class whose stored properties have already been initialized
- ``delegatingself``: designates ``self`` on a struct, enum, or class in a delegating constructor (one that calls self.init)
- ``delegatingselfallocated``: designates ``self`` on a class convenience initializer's initializing entry point

The purpose of the ``mark_uninitialized`` instruction is to enable
definitive initialization analysis for global variables (when marked as
'globalvar') and instance variables (when marked as 'rootinit'), which need to
be distinguished from simple allocations.

It is produced by SILGen, and is only valid in Raw SIL.  It is rewritten as
appropriate by the definitive initialization pass.

mark_function_escape
````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'mark_function_escape' sil-operand (',' sil-operand)

  mark_function_escape %1 : $*T

Indicates that a function definition closes over a symbolic memory location.
This instruction is variadic, and all of its operands must be addresses.

The purpose of the ``mark_function_escape`` instruction is to enable
definitive initialization analysis for global variables and instance variables,
which are not represented as box allocations.

It is produced by SILGen, and is only valid in Raw SIL.  It is rewritten as
appropriate by the definitive initialization pass.

mark_uninitialized_behavior
```````````````````````````
::

   init-case ::= sil-value sil-apply-substitution-list? '(' sil-value ')' ':' sil-type
   set-case ::= sil-value sil-apply-substitution-list? '(' sil-value ')' ':' sil-type
   sil-instruction ::= 'mark_uninitialized_behavior' init-case set-case

   mark_uninitialized_behavior %init<Subs>(%storage) : $T -> U,
                               %set<Subs>(%self) : $V -> W

Indicates that a logical property is uninitialized at this point and needs to be
initialized by the end of the function and before any escape point for this
instruction. Assignments to the property trigger the behavior's ``init`` or
``set`` logic based on the logical initialization state of the property.

It is expected that the ``init-case`` is passed some sort of storage and the
``set`` case is passed ``self``.

This is only valid in Raw SIL.

copy_addr
`````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'copy_addr' '[take]'? sil-value
                        'to' '[init]'? sil-operand

  copy_addr [take] %0 to [init] %1 : $*T
  // %0 and %1 must be of the same $*T address type

Loads the value at address ``%0`` from memory and assigns a copy of it back into
memory at address ``%1``. A bare ``copy_addr`` instruction when ``T`` is a
non-trivial type::

  copy_addr %0 to %1 : $*T

is equivalent to::

  %new = load %0 : $*T        // Load the new value from the source
  %old = load %1 : $*T        // Load the old value from the destination
  strong_retain %new : $T            // Retain the new value
  strong_release %old : $T           // Release the old
  store %new to %1 : $*T      // Store the new value to the destination

except that ``copy_addr`` may be used even if ``%0`` is of an address-only
type. The ``copy_addr`` may be given one or both of the ``[take]`` or
``[init]`` attributes:

* ``[take]`` destroys the value at the source address in the course of the
  copy.
* ``[init]`` indicates that the destination address is uninitialized.
  Without the attribute, the destination address is treated as already
  initialized, and the existing value will be destroyed before the new value
  is stored.

The three attributed forms thus behave like the following loadable type
operations::

  // take-assignment
    copy_addr [take] %0 to %1 : $*T
  // is equivalent to:
    %new = load %0 : $*T
    %old = load %1 : $*T
    // no retain of %new!
    strong_release %old : $T
    store %new to %1 : $*T

  // copy-initialization
    copy_addr %0 to [init] %1 : $*T
  // is equivalent to:
    %new = load %0 : $*T
    strong_retain %new : $T
    // no load/release of %old!
    store %new to %1 : $*T

  // take-initialization
    copy_addr [take] %0 to [init] %1 : $*T
  // is equivalent to:
    %new = load %0 : $*T
    // no retain of %new!
    // no load/release of %old!
    store %new to %1 : $*T

If ``T`` is a trivial type, then ``copy_addr`` is always equivalent to its
take-initialization form.

It is illegal in non-Raw SIL to apply ``copy_addr [init]`` to a value that is
move only.

explicit_copy_addr
``````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'explicit_copy_addr' '[take]'? sil-value
                        'to' '[init]'? sil-operand

  explicit_copy_addr [take] %0 to [init] %1 : $*T
  // %0 and %1 must be of the same $*T address type

This instruction is exactly the same as `copy_addr`_ except that it has special
behavior for move only types. Specifically, an `explicit_copy_addr`_ is viewed
as a copy_addr that is allowed on values that are move only. This is only used
by a move checker after it has emitted an error diagnostic to preserve the
general ``copy_addr [init]`` ban in Canonical SIL on move only types.

destroy_addr
````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'destroy_addr' sil-operand

  destroy_addr %0 : $*T
  // %0 must be of an address $*T type

Destroys the value in memory at address ``%0``. If ``T`` is a non-trivial type,
This is equivalent to::

  %1 = load %0
  strong_release %1

except that ``destroy_addr`` may be used even if ``%0`` is of an
address-only type.  This does not deallocate memory; it only destroys the
pointed-to value, leaving the memory uninitialized.

If ``T`` is a trivial type, then ``destroy_addr`` can be safely
eliminated. However, a memory location ``%a`` must not be accessed
after ``destroy_addr %a`` (which has not yet been eliminated)
regardless of its type.

index_addr
``````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'index_addr' ('[' 'stack_protection' ']')? sil-operand ',' sil-operand

  %2 = index_addr %0 : $*T, %1 : $Builtin.Int<n>
  // %0 must be of an address type $*T
  // %1 must be of a builtin integer type
  // %2 will be of type $*T

Given an address that references into an array of values, returns the address
of the ``%1``-th element relative to ``%0``. The address must reference into
a contiguous array. It is undefined to try to reference offsets within a
non-array value, such as fields within a homogeneous struct or tuple type, or
bytes within a value, using ``index_addr``. (``Int8`` address types have no
special behavior in this regard, unlike ``char*`` or ``void*`` in C.) It is
also undefined behavior to index out of bounds of an array, except to index
the "past-the-end" address of the array.

The ``stack_protection`` flag indicates that stack protection is done for
the pointer origin.

tail_addr
`````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'tail_addr' sil-operand ',' sil-operand ',' sil-type

  %2 = tail_addr %0 : $*T, %1 : $Builtin.Int<n>, $E
  // %0 must be of an address type $*T
  // %1 must be of a builtin integer type
  // %2 will be of type $*E

Given an address of an array of ``%1`` values, returns the address of an
element which is tail-allocated after the array.
This instruction is equivalent to ``index_addr`` except that the resulting
address is aligned-up to the tail-element type ``$E``.

This instruction is used to project the N-th tail-allocated array from an
object which is created by an ``alloc_ref`` with multiple ``tail_elems``.
The first operand is the address of an element of the (N-1)-th array, usually
the first element. The second operand is the number of elements until the end
of that array. The result is the address of the first element of the N-th array.

It is undefined behavior if the provided address, count and type do not match
the actual layout of tail-allocated arrays of the underlying object.

index_raw_pointer
`````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'index_raw_pointer' sil-operand ',' sil-operand

  %2 = index_raw_pointer %0 : $Builtin.RawPointer, %1 : $Builtin.Int<n>
  // %0 must be of $Builtin.RawPointer type
  // %1 must be of a builtin integer type
  // %2 will be of type $Builtin.RawPointer

Given a ``Builtin.RawPointer`` value ``%0``, returns a pointer value at the
byte offset ``%1`` relative to ``%0``.

bind_memory
```````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'bind_memory' sil-operand ',' sil-operand 'to' sil-type

  %token = bind_memory %0 : $Builtin.RawPointer, %1 : $Builtin.Word to $T
  // %0 must be of $Builtin.RawPointer type
  // %1 must be of $Builtin.Word type
  // %token is an opaque $Builtin.Word representing the previously bound types
  // for this memory region.

Binds memory at ``Builtin.RawPointer`` value ``%0`` to type ``$T`` with enough
capacity to hold ``%1`` values. See SE-0107: UnsafeRawPointer.

Produces a opaque token representing the previous memory state for
memory binding semantics. This abstract state includes the type that
the memory was previously bound to along with the size of the affected
memory region, which can be derived from ``%1``. The token cannot, for
example, be used to retrieve a metatype. It only serves a purpose when
used by ``rebind_memory``, which has no static type information. The
token dynamically passes type information from the first bind_memory
into a chain of rebind_memory operations.

Example::

  %_      = bind_memory %0   : $Builtin.RawPointer, %numT : $Builtin.Word to $T // holds type 'T'
  %token0 = bind_memory %0   : $Builtin.RawPointer, %numU : $Builtin.Word to $U // holds type 'U'
  %token1 = rebind_memory %0 : $Builtin.RawPointer, %token0 : $Builtin.Word  // holds type 'T'
  %token2 = rebind_memory %0 : $Builtin.RawPointer, %token1 : $Builtin.Word  // holds type 'U'


rebind_memory
`````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'rebind_memory' sil-operand ' 'to' sil-value

  %out_token = rebind_memory %0 : $Builtin.RawPointer to %in_token
  // %0 must be of $Builtin.RawPointer type
  // %in_token represents a cached set of bound types from a prior memory state.
  // %out_token is an opaque $Builtin.Word representing the previously bound
  // types for this memory region.

This instruction's semantics are identical to ``bind_memory``, except
that the types to which memory will be bound, and the extent of the
memory region is unknown at compile time. Instead, the bound-types are
represented by a token that was produced by a prior memory binding
operation. ``%in_token`` must be the result of ``bind_memory`` or
``rebind_memory``.

begin_access
````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'begin_access' '[' sil-access ']' '[' sil-enforcement ']' '[no_nested_conflict]'? '[builtin]'? sil-operand ':' sil-type
  sil-access ::= init
  sil-access ::= read
  sil-access ::= modify
  sil-access ::= deinit
  sil-enforcement ::= unknown
  sil-enforcement ::= static
  sil-enforcement ::= dynamic
  sil-enforcement ::= unsafe
  sil-enforcement ::= signed
  %1 = begin_access [read] [unknown] %0 : $*T
  // %0 must be of $*T type.

Begins an access to the target memory.

The operand must be a *root address derivation*:

- a function argument,
- an ``alloc_stack`` instruction,
- a ``project_box`` instruction,
- a ``global_addr`` instruction,
- a ``ref_element_addr`` instruction, or
- another ``begin_access`` instruction.

It will eventually become a basic structural rule of SIL that no memory
access instructions can be directly applied to the result of one of these
instructions; they can only be applied to the result of a ``begin_access``
on them.  For now, this rule will be conditional based on compiler settings
and the SIL stage.

An access is ended with a corresponding ``end_access``.  Accesses must be
uniquely ended on every control flow path which leads to either a function
exit or back to the ``begin_access`` instruction.  The set of active
accesses must be the same on every edge into a basic block.

An ``init`` access takes uninitialized memory and initializes it.
It must always use ``static`` enforcement.

An ``deinit`` access takes initialized memory and leaves it uninitialized.
It must always use ``static`` enforcement.

``read`` and ``modify`` accesses take initialized memory and leave it
initialized.  They may use ``unknown`` enforcement only in the ``raw``
SIL stage.

A ``no_nested_conflict`` access has no potentially conflicting access within
its scope (on any control flow path between it and its corresponding
``end_access``). Consequently, the access will not need to be tracked by the
runtime for the duration of its scope. This access may still conflict with an
outer access scope; therefore may still require dynamic enforcement at a single
point.

A ``signed`` access is for pointers that are signed in architectures that support
pointer signing.

A ``builtin`` access was emitted for a user-controlled Builtin (e.g. the
standard library's KeyPath access). Non-builtin accesses are auto-generated by
the compiler to enforce formal access that derives from the language. A
``builtin`` access is always fully enforced regardless of the compilation mode
because it may be used to enforce access outside of the current module.

end_access
``````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'end_access' ( '[' 'abort' ']' )? sil-operand

Ends an access.  The operand must be a ``begin_access`` instruction.

If the ``begin_access`` is ``init`` or ``deinit``, the ``end_access``
may be an ``abort``, indicating that the described transition did not
in fact take place.

begin_unpaired_access
`````````````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'begin_unpaired_access' '[' sil-access ']' '[' sil-enforcement ']' '[no_nested_conflict]'? '[builtin]'? sil-operand : sil-type, sil-operand : $*Builtin.UnsafeValueBuffer
  sil-access ::= init
  sil-access ::= read
  sil-access ::= modify
  sil-access ::= deinit
  sil-enforcement ::= unknown
  sil-enforcement ::= static
  sil-enforcement ::= dynamic
  sil-enforcement ::= unsafe
  %2 = begin_unpaired_access [read] [dynamic] %0 : $*T, %1 : $*Builtin.UnsafeValueBuffer
  // %0 must be of $*T type.

Begins an access to the target memory. This has the same semantics and obeys all
the same constraints as ``begin_access``. With the following exceptions:

- ``begin_unpaired_access`` has an additional operand for the scratch buffer
  used to uniquely identify this access within its scope.

- An access initiated by ``begin_unpaired_access`` must end with
  ``end_unpaired_access`` unless it has the ``no_nested_conflict`` flag. A
  ``begin_unpaired_access`` with ``no_nested_conflict`` is effectively an
  instantaneous access with no associated scope.

- The associated ``end_unpaired_access`` must use the same scratch buffer.

end_unpaired_access
```````````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'end_unpaired_access' ( '[' 'abort' ']' )? '[' sil-enforcement ']' sil-operand : $*Builtin.UnsafeValueBuffer
  sil-enforcement ::= unknown
  sil-enforcement ::= static
  sil-enforcement ::= dynamic
  sil-enforcement ::= unsafe
  %1 = end_unpaired_access [dynamic] %0 : $*Builtin.UnsafeValueBuffer

Ends an access. This has the same semantics and constraints as ``end_access`` with the following exceptions:

- The single operand refers to the scratch buffer that uniquely identified the
  access with this scope.

- The enforcement level is reiterated, since the corresponding
  ``begin_unpaired_access`` may not be statically discoverable. It must be
  identical to the ``begin_unpaired_access`` enforcement.


Reference Counting
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

These instructions handle reference counting of heap objects. Values of
strong reference type have ownership semantics for the referenced heap
object. Retain and release operations, however,
are never implicit in SIL and always must be explicitly performed where needed.
Retains and releases on the value may be freely moved, and balancing
retains and releases may be deleted, so long as an owning retain count is
maintained for the uses of the value.

All reference-counting operations are defined to work correctly on
null references (whether strong, unowned, or weak).  A non-null
reference must actually refer to a valid object of the indicated type
(or a subtype).  Address operands are required to be valid and non-null.

While SIL makes reference-counting operations explicit, the SIL type
system also fully represents strength of reference.  This is useful
for several reasons:

1. Type-safety: it is impossible to erroneously emit SIL that naively
   uses a ``@weak`` or ``@unowned`` reference as if it were a strong
   reference.

2. Consistency: when a reference is kept in memory, instructions like
   ``copy_addr`` and ``destroy_addr`` implicitly carry the right
   semantics in the type of the address, rather than needing special
   variants or flags.

3. Ease of tooling: SIL directly stores the user's intended strength
   of reference, making it straightforward to generate instrumentation
   that would convey this to a memory profiler.  In principle, with
   only a modest number of additions and restrictions on SIL, it would
   even be possible to drop all reference-counting instructions and
   use the type information to feed a garbage collector.

strong_retain
`````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'strong_retain' sil-operand

  strong_retain %0 : $T
  // $T must be a reference type

Increases the strong retain count of the heap object referenced by ``%0``.

strong_release
``````````````
::

  strong_release %0 : $T
  // $T must be a reference type.

Decrements the strong reference count of the heap object referenced by ``%0``.
If the release operation brings the strong reference count of the object to
zero, the object is destroyed and ``@weak`` references are cleared.  When both
its strong and unowned reference counts reach zero, the object's memory is
deallocated.

set_deallocating
````````````````
::

  set_deallocating %0 : $T
  // $T must be a reference type.

Explicitly sets the state of the object referenced by ``%0`` to deallocated.
This is the same operation what's done by a strong_release immediately before
it calls the deallocator of the object.

It is expected that the strong reference count of the object is one.
Furthermore, no other thread may increment the strong reference count during
execution of this instruction.

strong_copy_unowned_value
`````````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'strong_copy_unowned_value' sil-operand

  %1 = strong_copy_unowned_value %0 : $@unowned T
  // %1 will be a strong @owned value of type $T.
  // $T must be a reference type

Asserts that the strong reference count of the heap object referenced by ``%0``
is still positive, then increments the reference count and returns a new strong
reference to ``%0``. The intention is that this instruction is used as a "safe
ownership conversion" from ``unowned`` to ``strong``.

strong_retain_unowned
`````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'strong_retain_unowned' sil-operand

  strong_retain_unowned %0 : $@unowned T
  // $T must be a reference type

Asserts that the strong reference count of the heap object referenced by ``%0``
is still positive, then increases it by one.

unowned_retain
``````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'unowned_retain' sil-operand

  unowned_retain %0 : $@unowned T
  // $T must be a reference type

Increments the unowned reference count of the heap object underlying ``%0``.

unowned_release
```````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'unowned_release' sil-operand

  unowned_release %0 : $@unowned T
  // $T must be a reference type

Decrements the unowned reference count of the heap object referenced by
``%0``.  When both its strong and unowned reference counts reach zero,
the object's memory is deallocated.

load_weak
`````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'load_weak' '[take]'? sil-operand

  load_weak [take] %0 : $*@sil_weak Optional<T>
  // $T must be an optional wrapping a reference type

Increments the strong reference count of the heap object held in the operand,
which must be an initialized weak reference.  The result is value of type
``$Optional<T>``, except that it is ``null`` if the heap object has begun
deallocation.

If ``[take]`` is specified then the underlying weak reference is invalidated
implying that the weak reference count of the loaded value is decremented. If
``[take]`` is not specified then the underlying weak reference count is not
affected by this operation (i.e. it is a +0 weak ref count operation). In either
case, the strong reference count will be incremented before any changes to the
weak reference count.

This operation must be atomic with respect to the final ``strong_release`` on
the operand heap object.  It need not be atomic with respect to
``store_weak``/``weak_copy_value`` or ``load_weak``/``strong_copy_weak_value``
operations on the same address.

strong_copy_weak_value
``````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'strong_copy_weak_value' sil-operand

  %1 = strong_copy_weak_value %0 : $@sil_weak Optional<T>
  // %1 will be a strong @owned value of type $Optional<T>.
  // $T must be a reference type
  // $@sil_weak Optional<T> must be address-only

Only valid in opaque values mode.  Lowered by AddressLowering to load_weak.

If the heap object referenced by ``%0`` has not begun deallocation, increments
its strong reference count and produces the value ``Optional.some`` holding the
object.  Otherwise, produces the value ``Optional.none``.

This operation must be atomic with respect to the final ``strong_release`` on
the operand heap object.  It need not be atomic with respect to
``store_weak``/``weak_copy_value`` or ``load_weak``/``strong_copy_weak_value``
operations on the same address.

store_weak
``````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'store_weak' sil-value 'to' '[init]'? sil-operand

  store_weak %0 to [init] %1 : $*@sil_weak Optional<T>
  // $T must be an optional wrapping a reference type

Initializes or reassigns a weak reference.  The operand may be ``nil``.

If ``[init]`` is given, the weak reference must currently either be
uninitialized or destroyed.  If it is not given, the weak reference must
currently be initialized. After the evaluation:

* The value that was originally referenced by the weak reference will have
  its weak reference count decremented by 1.
* If the optionally typed operand is non-nil, the strong reference wrapped in
  the optional has its weak reference count incremented by 1. In contrast, the reference's
  strong reference count is not touched.

This operation must be atomic with respect to the final ``strong_release`` on
the operand (source) heap object.  It need not be atomic with respect to
``store_weak``/``weak_copy_value`` or ``load_weak``/``strong_copy_weak_value``
operations on the same address.

weak_copy_value
```````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'weak_copy_value' sil-operand

  %1 = weak_copy_value %0 : $Optional<T>
  // %1 will be an @owned value of type $@sil_weak Optional<T>.
  // $T must be a reference type
  // $@sil_weak Optional<T> must be address-only

Only valid in opaque values mode.  Lowered by AddressLowering to store_weak.

If ``%0`` is non-nil, produces the value ``@sil_weak Optional.some`` holding the
object and increments the weak reference count by 1.  Otherwise, produces the
value ``Optional.none`` wrapped in a ``@sil_weak`` box.

This operation must be atomic with respect to the final ``strong_release`` on
the operand (source) heap object.  It need not be atomic with respect to
``store_weak``/``weak_copy_value`` or ``load_weak``/``strong_copy_weak_value``
operations on the same address.

load_unowned
````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'load_unowned' '[take]'? sil-operand

  %1 = load_unowned [take] %0 : $*@sil_unowned T
  // T must be a reference type

Increments the strong reference count of the object stored at ``%0``.  

Decrements the unowned reference count of the object stored at ``%0`` if
``[take]`` is specified.  Additionally, the storage is invalidated.

Requires that the strong reference count of the heap object stored at ``%0`` is
positive.  Otherwise, traps.

This operation must be atomic with respect to the final ``strong_release`` on
the operand (source) heap object.  It need not be atomic with respect to
``store_unowned``/``unowned_copy_value`` or
``load_unowned``/``strong_copy_unowned_value`` operations on the same address.

store_unowned
`````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'store_unowned' sil-value 'to' '[init]'? sil-operand

  store_unowned %0 to [init] %1 : $*@sil_unowned T
  // T must be a reference type

Increments the unowned reference count of the object at ``%0``.

Decrements the unowned reference count of the object previously stored at ``%1``
if ``[init]`` is not specified.

The storage must be initialized iff ``[init]`` is not specified.

This operation must be atomic with respect to the final ``strong_release`` on
the operand (source) heap object.  It need not be atomic with respect to
``store_unowned``/``unowned_copy_value`` or
``load_unowned``/``strong_copy_unowned_value`` operations on the same address.

unowned_copy_value
``````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'unowned_copy_value' sil-operand

  %1 = unowned_copy_value %0 : $T
  // %1 will be an @owned value of type $@sil_unowned T.
  // $T must be a reference type
  // $@sil_unowned T must be address-only

Only valid in opaque values mode.  Lowered by AddressLowering to store_unowned.

Increments the unowned reference count of the object at ``%0``.

Wraps the operand in an instance of ``@sil_unowned``.

This operation must be atomic with respect to the final ``strong_release`` on
the operand (source) heap object.  It need not be atomic with respect to
``store_unowned``/``unowned_copy_value`` or
``load_unowned``/``strong_copy_unowned_value`` operations on the same address.

fix_lifetime
````````````

::

  sil-instruction :: 'fix_lifetime' sil-operand

  fix_lifetime %0 : $T
  // Fix the lifetime of a value %0
  fix_lifetime %1 : $*T
  // Fix the lifetime of the memory object referenced by %1

Acts as a use of a value operand, or of the value in memory referenced by an
address operand. Optimizations may not move operations that would destroy the
value, such as ``release_value``, ``strong_release``, ``copy_addr [take]``, or
``destroy_addr``, past this instruction.

mark_dependence
```````````````

::

  sil-instruction :: 'mark_dependence' sil-operand 'on' sil-operand

  %2 = mark_dependence %0 : $*T on %1 : $Builtin.NativeObject

Indicates that the validity of the first operand depends on the value
of the second operand.  Operations that would destroy the second value
must not be moved before any instructions which depend on the result
of this instruction, exactly as if the address had been obviously
derived from that operand (e.g. using ``ref_element_addr``).

The result is always equal to the first operand.  The first operand
will typically be an address, but it could be an address in a
non-obvious form, such as a Builtin.RawPointer or a struct containing
the same.  Transformations should be somewhat forgiving here.

The second operand may have either object or address type.  In the
latter case, the dependency is on the current value stored in the
address.

is_unique
`````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'is_unique' sil-operand

  %1 = is_unique %0 : $*T
  // $T must be a reference-counted type
  // %1 will be of type Builtin.Int1

Checks whether %0 is the address of a unique reference to a memory
object. Returns 1 if the strong reference count is 1, and 0 if the
strong reference count is greater than 1.

A discussion of the semantics can be found here:
`is_unique instruction <arcopts_is_unique_>`_

.. _arcopts_is_unique: https://github.com/apple/swift/blob/main/docs/ARCOptimization.md#is_unique-instruction

begin_cow_mutation
``````````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'begin_cow_mutation' '[native]'? sil-operand

  (%1, %2) = begin_cow_mutation %0 : $C
  // $C must be a reference-counted type
  // %1 will be of type Builtin.Int1
  // %2 will be of type C

Checks whether %0 is a unique reference to a memory object. Returns 1 in the
first result if the strong reference count is 1, and 0 if the strong reference
count is greater than 1.

Returns the reference operand in the second result. The returned reference can
be used to mutate the object. Technically, the returned reference is the same
as the operand. But it's important that optimizations see the result as a
different SSA value than the operand. This is important to ensure the
correctness of ``ref_element_addr [immutable]``.

The operand is consumed and the second result is returned as owned.

The optional ``native`` attribute specifies that the operand has native Swift
reference counting.

end_cow_mutation
````````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'end_cow_mutation' '[keep_unique]'? sil-operand

  %1 = end_cow_mutation %0 : $C
  // $C must be a reference-counted type
  // %1 will be of type C

Marks the end of the mutation of a reference counted object.
Returns the reference operand. Technically, the returned reference is the same
as the operand. But it's important that optimizations see the result as a
different SSA value than the operand. This is important to ensure the
correctness of ``ref_element_addr [immutable]``.

The operand is consumed and the result is returned as owned. The result is
guaranteed to be uniquely referenced.

The optional ``keep_unique`` attribute indicates that the optimizer must not
replace this reference with a not uniquely reference object.

is_escaping_closure
```````````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'is_escaping_closure' sil-operand

  %1 = is_escaping_closure %0 : $@callee_guaranteed () -> ()
  // %0 must be an escaping swift closure.
  // %1 will be of type Builtin.Int1

Checks whether the context reference is not nil and bigger than one and returns
true if it is.

copy_block
``````````

::

  sil-instruction :: 'copy_block' sil-operand

  %1 = copy_block %0 : $@convention(block) T -> U

Performs a copy of an Objective-C block. Unlike retains of other
reference-counted types, this can produce a different value from the operand
if the block is copied from the stack to the heap.

copy_block_without_escaping
```````````````````````````

::

  sil-instruction :: 'copy_block_without_escaping' sil-operand 'withoutEscaping' sil-operand

  %1 = copy_block %0 : $@convention(block) T -> U withoutEscaping %1 : $T -> U

Performs a copy of an Objective-C block. Unlike retains of other
reference-counted types, this can produce a different value from the operand if
the block is copied from the stack to the heap.

Additionally, consumes the ``withoutEscaping`` operand ``%1`` which is the
closure sentinel. SILGen emits these instructions when it passes @noescape
swift closures to Objective C. A mandatory SIL pass will lower this instruction
into a ``copy_block`` and a ``is_escaping``/``cond_fail``/``destroy_value`` at
the end of the lifetime of the objective c closure parameter to check whether
the sentinel closure was escaped.

Literals
~~~~~~~~

These instructions bind SIL values to literal constants or to global entities.

function_ref
````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'function_ref' sil-function-name ':' sil-type

  %1 = function_ref @function : $@convention(thin) T -> U
  // $@convention(thin) T -> U must be a thin function type
  // %1 has type $T -> U

Creates a reference to a SIL function.

dynamic_function_ref
````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'dynamic_function_ref' sil-function-name ':' sil-type

  %1 = dynamic_function_ref @function : $@convention(thin) T -> U
  // $@convention(thin) T -> U must be a thin function type
  // %1 has type $T -> U

Creates a reference to a `dynamically_replacable` SIL function. A
`dynamically_replacable` SIL function can be replaced at runtime.

For the following Swift code::

  dynamic func test_dynamically_replaceable() {}

  func test_dynamic_call() {
    test_dynamically_replaceable()
  }

We will generate::

  sil [dynamically_replacable] @test_dynamically_replaceable : $@convention(thin) () -> () {
  bb0:
    %0 = tuple ()
    return %0 : $()
  }

  sil @test_dynamic_call : $@convention(thin) () -> () {
  bb0:
    %0 = dynamic_function_ref @test_dynamically_replaceable : $@convention(thin) () -> ()
    %1 = apply %0() : $@convention(thin) () -> ()
    %2 = tuple ()
    return %2 : $()
  }

prev_dynamic_function_ref
`````````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'prev_dynamic_function_ref' sil-function-name ':' sil-type

  %1 = prev_dynamic_function_ref @function : $@convention(thin) T -> U
  // $@convention(thin) T -> U must be a thin function type
  // %1 has type $T -> U

Creates a reference to a previous implementation of a `dynamic_replacement` SIL
function.

For the following Swift code::

  @_dynamicReplacement(for: test_dynamically_replaceable())
  func test_replacement() {
    test_dynamically_replaceable() // calls previous implementation
  }

We  will generate::

  sil [dynamic_replacement_for "test_dynamically_replaceable"] @test_replacement : $@convention(thin) () -> () {
  bb0:
    %0 = prev_dynamic_function_ref @test_replacement : $@convention(thin) () -> ()
    %1 = apply %0() : $@convention(thin) () -> ()
    %2 = tuple ()
    return %2 : $()
  }

global_addr
```````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'global_addr' sil-global-name ':' sil-type

  %1 = global_addr @foo : $*Builtin.Word

Creates a reference to the address of a global variable which has been
previously initialized by ``alloc_global``. It is undefined behavior to
perform this operation on a global variable which has not been
initialized, except the global variable has a static initializer.

global_value
`````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'global_value' ('[' 'bare' ']')? sil-global-name ':' sil-type

  %1 = global_value @v : $T

Returns the value of a global variable which has been previously initialized
by ``alloc_global``. It is undefined behavior to perform this operation on a
global variable which has not been initialized, except the global variable
has a static initializer.

The ``bare`` attribute indicates that the object header is not used throughout
the lifetime of the value. This means, no reference counting operations are
performed on the object and its metadata is not used. The header of bare
objects doesn't need to be initialized.

integer_literal
```````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'integer_literal' sil-type ',' int-literal

  %1 = integer_literal $Builtin.Int<n>, 123
  // $Builtin.Int<n> must be a builtin integer type
  // %1 has type $Builtin.Int<n>

Creates an integer literal value. The result will be of type
``Builtin.Int<n>``, which must be a builtin integer type. The literal value
is specified using Swift's integer literal syntax.

float_literal
`````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'float_literal' sil-type ',' int-literal

  %1 = float_literal $Builtin.FP<n>, 0x3F800000
  // $Builtin.FP<n> must be a builtin floating-point type
  // %1 has type $Builtin.FP<n>

Creates a floating-point literal value. The result will be of type ``Builtin.FP<n>``, which must be a builtin floating-point type. The literal
value is specified as the bitwise representation of the floating point value,
using Swift's hexadecimal integer literal syntax.

string_literal
``````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'string_literal' encoding string-literal
  encoding ::= 'utf8'
  encoding ::= 'utf16'
  encoding ::= 'objc_selector'

  %1 = string_literal "asdf"
  // %1 has type $Builtin.RawPointer

Creates a reference to a string in the global string table. The result
is a pointer to the data.  The referenced string is always null-terminated. The
string literal value is specified using Swift's string
literal syntax (though ``\()`` interpolations are not allowed). When
the encoding is ``objc_selector``, the string literal produces a
reference to a UTF-8-encoded Objective-C selector in the Objective-C
method name segment.

base_addr_for_offset
````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'base_addr_for_offset' sil-type

  %1 = base_addr_for_offset $*S
  // %1 has type $*S

Creates a base address for offset calculations. The result can be used by
address projections, like ``struct_element_addr``, which themselves return the
offset of the projected fields.
IR generation simply creates a null pointer for ``base_addr_for_offset``.

Dynamic Dispatch
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

These instructions perform dynamic lookup of class and generic methods.

The ``class_method`` and ``super_method`` instructions must reference
Swift native methods and always use vtable dispatch.

The ``objc_method`` and ``objc_super_method`` instructions must reference
Objective-C methods (indicated by the ``foreign`` marker on a method
reference, as in ``#NSObject.description!foreign``).

Note that ``objc_msgSend`` invocations can only be used as the callee
of an ``apply`` instruction or ``partial_apply`` instruction. They cannot
be stored or used as ``apply`` or ``partial_apply`` arguments.

class_method
````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'class_method' sil-method-attributes?
                        sil-operand ',' sil-decl-ref ':' sil-type

  %1 = class_method %0 : $T, #T.method : $@convention(class_method) U -> V
  // %0 must be of a class type or class metatype $T
  // #T.method must be a reference to a Swift native method of T or
  // of one of its superclasses
  // %1 will be of type $U -> V

Looks up a method based on the dynamic type of a class or class metatype
instance. It is undefined behavior if the class value is null.

If the static type of the class instance is known, or the method is known
to be final, then the instruction is a candidate for devirtualization
optimization. A devirtualization pass can consult the module's `VTables`_
to find the SIL function that implements the method and promote the
instruction to a static `function_ref`_.

objc_method
```````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'objc_method' sil-method-attributes?
                        sil-operand ',' sil-decl-ref ':' sil-type

  %1 = objc_method %0 : $T, #T.method!foreign : $@convention(objc_method) U -> V
  // %0 must be of a class type or class metatype $T
  // #T.method must be a reference to an Objective-C method of T or
  // of one of its superclasses
  // %1 will be of type $U -> V

Performs Objective-C method dispatch using ``objc_msgSend()``.

Objective-C method calls are never candidates for devirtualization.

super_method
````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'super_method' sil-method-attributes?
                        sil-operand ',' sil-decl-ref ':' sil-type

  %1 = super_method %0 : $T, #Super.method : $@convention(thin) U -> V
  // %0 must be of a non-root class type or class metatype $T
  // #Super.method must be a reference to a native Swift method of T's
  // superclass or of one of its ancestor classes
  // %1 will be of type $@convention(thin) U -> V

Looks up a method in the superclass of a class or class metatype instance.

objc_super_method
`````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'super_method' sil-method-attributes?
                        sil-operand ',' sil-decl-ref ':' sil-type

  %1 = super_method %0 : $T, #Super.method!foreign : $@convention(thin) U -> V
  // %0 must be of a non-root class type or class metatype $T
  // #Super.method!foreign must be a reference to an ObjC method of T's
  // superclass or of one of its ancestor classes
  // %1 will be of type $@convention(thin) U -> V

This instruction performs an Objective-C message send using
``objc_msgSuper()``.

witness_method
``````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'witness_method' sil-method-attributes?
                        sil-type ',' sil-decl-ref ':' sil-type

  %1 = witness_method $T, #Proto.method \
    : $@convention(witness_method) <Self: Proto> U -> V
  // $T must be an archetype
  // #Proto.method must be a reference to a method of one of the protocol
  //   constraints on T
  // <Self: Proto> U -> V must be the type of the referenced method,
  //   generic on Self
  // %1 will be of type $@convention(thin) <Self: Proto> U -> V

Looks up the implementation of a protocol method for a generic type variable
constrained by that protocol. The result will be generic on the ``Self``
archetype of the original protocol and have the ``witness_method`` calling
convention. If the referenced protocol is an ``@objc`` protocol, the
resulting type has the ``objc`` calling convention.

Function Application
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

These instructions call functions or wrap them in partial application or
specialization thunks.

apply
`````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'apply' '[nothrow]'? sil-value
                        sil-apply-substitution-list?
                        '(' (sil-value (',' sil-value)*)? ')'
                        ':' sil-type

  sil-apply-substitution-list ::= '<' sil-substitution
                                      (',' sil-substitution)* '>'
  sil-substitution ::= type '=' type

  %r = apply %0(%1, %2, ...) : $(A, B, ...) -> R
  // Note that the type of the callee '%0' is specified *after* the arguments
  // %0 must be of a concrete function type $(A, B, ...) -> R
  // %1, %2, etc. must be of the argument types $A, $B, etc.
  // %r will be of the return type $R

  %r = apply %0<A, B>(%1, %2, ...) : $<T, U>(T, U, ...) -> R
  // %0 must be of a polymorphic function type $<T, U>(T, U, ...) -> R
  // %1, %2, etc. must be of the argument types after substitution $A, $B, etc.
  // %r will be of the substituted return type $R'

Transfers control to function ``%0``, passing it the given arguments. In
the instruction syntax, the type of the callee is specified after the argument
list; the types of the argument and of the defined value are derived from the
function type of the callee. The input argument tuple type is destructured,
and each element is passed as an individual argument. The ``apply``
instruction does no retaining or releasing of its arguments by itself; the
`calling convention`_'s retain/release policy must be handled by separate
explicit ``retain`` and ``release`` instructions. The return value will
likewise not be implicitly retained or released.

The callee value must have function type.  That function type may not
have an error result, except the instruction has the ``nothrow`` attribute set.
The ``nothrow`` attribute specifies that the callee has an error result but
does not actually throw.
For the regular case of calling a function with error result, use ``try_apply``.

NB: If the callee value is of a thick function type, ``apply`` currently
consumes the callee value at +1 strong retain count.

If the callee is generic, all of its generic parameters must be bound by the
given substitution list. The arguments and return value is
given with these generic substitutions applied.

begin_apply
```````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'begin_apply' '[nothrow]'? sil-value
                        sil-apply-substitution-list?
                        '(' (sil-value (',' sil-value)*)? ')'
                        ':' sil-type

  (%anyAddr, %float, %token) = begin_apply %0() : $@yield_once () -> (@yields @inout %Any, @yields Float)
  // %anyAddr : $*Any
  // %float : $Float
  // %token is a token

Transfers control to coroutine ``%0``, passing it the given arguments.
The rules for the application generally follow the rules for ``apply``,
except:

- the callee value must have a ``yield_once`` coroutine type,

- control returns to this function not when the coroutine performs a
  ``return``, but when it performs a ``yield``, and

- the instruction results are derived from the yields of the coroutine
  instead of its normal results.

The final result of a ``begin_apply`` is a "token", a special value which
can only be used as the operand of an ``end_apply`` or ``abort_apply``
instruction.  Before this second instruction is executed, the coroutine
is said to be "suspended", and the token represents a reference to its
suspended activation record.

The other results of the instruction correspond to the yields in the
coroutine type.  In general, the rules of a yield are similar to the rules
for a parameter, interpreted as if the coroutine caller (the one
executing the ``begin_apply``) were being "called" by the ``yield``:

- If a yield has an indirect convention, the corresponding result will
  have an address type; otherwise it has an object type.  For example,
  a result corresponding to an ``@in Any`` yield will have type ``$Any``.

- The convention attributes are the same as the parameter convention
  attributes, interpreted as if the ``yield`` were the "call" and the
  ``begin_apply`` marked the entry to the "callee".  For example,
  an ``@in Any`` yield transfers ownership of the ``Any`` value
  reference from the coroutine to the caller, which must destroy
  or move the value from that position before ending or aborting the
  coroutine.

A ``begin_apply`` must be uniquely either ended or aborted before
exiting the function or looping to an earlier portion of the function.

When throwing coroutines are supported, there will need to be a
``try_begin_apply`` instruction.

abort_apply
```````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'abort_apply' sil-value

  abort_apply %token

Aborts the given coroutine activation, which is currently suspended at
a ``yield`` instruction.  Transfers control to the coroutine and takes
the ``unwind`` path from the ``yield``.  Control is transferred back
when the coroutine reaches an ``unwind`` instruction.

The operand must always be the token result of a ``begin_apply``
instruction, which is why it need not specify a type.

Throwing coroutines will not require a new instruction for aborting
a coroutine; a coroutine is not allowed to throw when it is being aborted.

end_apply
`````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'end_apply' sil-value

  end_apply %token

Ends the given coroutine activation, which is currently suspended at
a ``yield`` instruction.  Transfers control to the coroutine and takes
the ``resume`` path from the ``yield``.  Control is transferred back
when the coroutine reaches a ``return`` instruction.

The operand must always be the token result of a ``begin_apply``
instruction, which is why it need not specify a type.

``end_apply`` currently has no instruction results.  If coroutines were
allowed to have normal results, they would be producted by ``end_apply``.

When throwing coroutines are supported, there will need to be a
``try_end_apply`` instruction.

partial_apply
`````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'partial_apply' callee-ownership-attr? on-stack-attr? sil-value
                        sil-apply-substitution-list?
                        '(' (sil-value (',' sil-value)*)? ')'
                        ':' sil-type
  callee-ownership-attr ::= '[callee_guaranteed]'
  on-stack-attr ::= '[on_stack]'

  %c = partial_apply %0(%1, %2, ...) : $(Z..., A, B, ...) -> R
  // Note that the type of the callee '%0' is specified *after* the arguments
  // %0 must be of a concrete function type $(Z..., A, B, ...) -> R
  // %1, %2, etc. must be of the argument types $A, $B, etc.,
  //   of the tail part of the argument tuple of %0
  // %c will be of the partially-applied thick function type (Z...) -> R

  %c = partial_apply %0<A, B>(%1, %2, ...) : $(Z..., T, U, ...) -> R
  // %0 must be of a polymorphic function type $<T, U>(T, U, ...) -> R
  // %1, %2, etc. must be of the argument types after substitution $A, $B, etc.
  //   of the tail part of the argument tuple of %0
  // %r will be of the substituted thick function type $(Z'...) -> R'

Creates a closure by partially applying the function ``%0`` to a partial
sequence of its arguments. This instruction is used to implement closures.

A local function in Swift that captures context, such as ``bar`` in the
following example::

  func foo(_ x:Int) -> Int {
    func bar(_ y:Int) -> Int {
      return x + y
    }
    return bar(1)
  }

lowers to an uncurried entry point and is curried in the enclosing function::

  func @bar : $@convention(thin) (Int, @box Int, *Int) -> Int {
  entry(%y : $Int, %x_box : $@box Int, %x_address : $*Int):
    // ... body of bar ...
  }

  func @foo : $@convention(thin) Int -> Int {
  entry(%x : $Int):
    // Create a box for the 'x' variable
    %x_box = alloc_box $Int
    %x_addr = project_box %x_box : $@box Int
    store %x to %x_addr : $*Int

    // Create the bar closure
    %bar_uncurried = function_ref @bar : $(Int, Int) -> Int
    %bar = partial_apply %bar_uncurried(%x_box, %x_addr) \
      : $(Int, Builtin.NativeObject, *Int) -> Int

    // Apply it
    %1 = integer_literal $Int, 1
    %ret = apply %bar(%1) : $(Int) -> Int

    // Clean up
    release %bar : $(Int) -> Int
    return %ret : $Int
  }

**Ownership Semantics of Closure Context during Invocation**: By default, an
escaping ``partial_apply`` (``partial_apply`` without ``[on_stack]]`` creates a
closure whose invocation takes ownership of the context, meaning that a call
implicitly releases the closure. If the ``partial_apply`` is marked with the
flag ``[callee_guaranteed]`` the invocation instead uses a caller-guaranteed
model, where the caller promises not to release the closure while the function
is being called.

**Captured Value Ownership Semantics**: In the instruction syntax, the type of
the callee is specified after the argument list; the types of the argument and
of the defined value are derived from the function type of the callee. Even so,
the ownership requirements of the partial apply are not the same as that of the
callee function (and thus said signature). Instead:

1. If the ``partial_apply`` has a ``@noescape`` function type (``partial_apply
   [on_stack]``) the closure context is allocated on the stack and is
   initialized to contain the closed-over values without taking ownership of
   those values. The closed-over values are not retained and the lifetime of the
   closed-over values must be managed by other instruction independently of the
   ``partial_apply``. The lifetime of the stack context of a ``partial_apply
   [on_stack]`` must be terminated with a ``dealloc_stack``.

2. If the ``partial_apply`` has an escaping function type (not ``[on_stack]``)
   then the closure context will be heap allocated with a retain count of 1. Any
   closed over parameters (except for ``@inout`` parameters) will be consumed by
   the partial_apply. This ensures that no matter when the ``partial_apply`` is
   called, the captured arguments are alive. When the closure context's
   reference count reaches zero, the contained values are destroyed. If the
   callee requires an owned parameter, then the implicit partial_apply forwarder
   created by IRGen will copy the underlying argument and pass it to the callee.

3. If an address argument has ``@inout_aliasable`` convention, the closure
   obtained from ``partial_apply`` will not own its underlying value.  The
   ``@inout_aliasable`` parameter convention is used when a ``@noescape``
   closure captures an ``inout`` argument.

**NOTE:** If the callee is generic, all of its generic parameters must be bound
by the given substitution list. The arguments are given with these generic
substitutions applied, and the resulting closure is of concrete function type
with the given substitutions applied. The generic parameters themselves cannot
be partially applied; all of them must be bound. The result is always a concrete
function.

**TODO:** The instruction, when applied to a generic function, currently
implicitly performs abstraction difference transformations enabled by the given
substitutions, such as promoting address-only arguments and returns to register
arguments. This should be fixed.

builtin
```````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'builtin' string-literal
                        sil-apply-substitution-list?
                        '(' (sil-operand (',' sil-operand)*)? ')'
                        ':' sil-type

  %1 = builtin "foo"(%1 : $T, %2 : $U) : $V
  // "foo" must name a function in the Builtin module

Invokes functionality built into the backend code generator, such as LLVM-
level instructions and intrinsics.

Metatypes
~~~~~~~~~

These instructions access metatypes, either statically by type name or
dynamically by introspecting class or generic values.

metatype
````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'metatype' sil-type

  %1 = metatype $T.Type
  // %1 has type $T.Type

Creates a reference to the metatype object for type ``T``.

value_metatype
``````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'value_metatype' sil-type ',' sil-operand

  %1 = value_metatype $T.Type, %0 : $T
  // %0 must be a value or address of type $T
  // %1 will be of type $T.Type

Obtains a reference to the dynamic metatype of the value ``%0``.

existential_metatype
````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'existential_metatype' sil-type ',' sil-operand

  %1 = existential_metatype $P.Type, %0 : $P
  // %0 must be a value of class protocol or protocol composition
  //   type $P, or an address of address-only protocol type $*P
  // %1 will be a $P.Type value referencing the metatype of the
  //   concrete value inside %0

Obtains the metatype of the concrete value
referenced by the existential container referenced by ``%0``.

objc_protocol
`````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'objc_protocol' protocol-decl : sil-type

  %0 = objc_protocol #ObjCProto : $Protocol

*TODO* Fill this in.

Aggregate Types
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

These instructions construct and project elements from structs, tuples, and
class instances.

retain_value
````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'retain_value' sil-operand

  retain_value %0 : $A

Retains a loadable value, which simply retains any references it holds.

For trivial types, this is a no-op.  For reference types, this is equivalent to
a ``strong_retain``.  For ``@unowned`` types, this is equivalent to an
``unowned_retain``.  In each of these cases, those are the preferred forms.

For aggregate types, especially enums, it is typically both easier
and more efficient to reason about aggregate copies than it is to
reason about copies of the subobjects.

retain_value_addr
`````````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'retain_value_addr' sil-operand

  retain_value_addr %0 : $*A

Retains a loadable value inside given address,
which simply retains any references it holds.

unmanaged_retain_value
``````````````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'unmanaged_retain_value' sil-value

  unmanaged_retain_value %0 : $A

This instruction has the same local semantics as ``retain_value`` but:

* Is valid in ownership qualified SIL.
* Is not intended to be statically paired at compile time by the compiler.

The intention is that this instruction is used to implement unmanaged
constructs.

strong_copy_unmanaged_value
```````````````````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'strong_copy_unmanaged_value' sil-value

  %1 = strong_copy_unmanaged_value %0 : $@sil_unmanaged A
  // %1 will be a strong @owned $A.

This instruction has the same semantics as ``copy_value`` except that its input
is a trivial ``@sil_unmanaged`` type that doesn't require ref counting. This is
intended to be used semantically as a "conversion" like instruction from
``unmanaged`` to ``strong`` and thus should never be removed by the optimizer.
Since the returned value is a strong owned value, this instruction semantically
should be treated as performing a strong copy of the underlying value as if by
the value's type lowering.

copy_value
``````````

::

   sil-instruction ::= 'copy_value' sil-operand

   %1 = copy_value %0 : $A

Performs a copy of a loadable value as if by the value's type lowering and
returns the copy. The returned copy semantically is a value that is completely
independent of the operand. In terms of specific types:

1. For trivial types, this is equivalent to just propagating through the trivial
   value.
2. For reference types, this is equivalent to performing a ``strong_retain``
   operation and returning the reference.
3. For ``@unowned`` types, this is equivalent to performing an
   ``unowned_retain`` and returning the operand.
4. For aggregate types, this is equivalent to recursively performing a
   ``copy_value`` on its components, forming a new aggregate from the copied
   components, and then returning the new aggregate.

In ownership qualified functions, a ``copy_value`` produces a +1 value that must
be consumed at most once along any path through the program.

It is illegal in non-Raw SIL to `copy_value`_ a value that is "move only".

explicit_copy_value
```````````````````

::

   sil-instruction ::= 'explicit_copy_value' sil-operand

   %1 = explicit_copy_value %0 : $A

This is exactly the same instruction semantically as `copy_value`_ with the
exception that when move only checking is performed, `explicit_copy_value`_ is
treated as an explicit copy asked for by the user that should not be rewritten
and should be treated as a non-consuming use.

This is used for two things:

1. Implementing a copy builtin for no implicit copy types.
2. To enable the move checker, once it has emitted an error diagnostic, to still
   produce valid Ownership SSA SIL at the end of the guaranteed optimization
   pipeline when we enter the Canonical SIL stage.

move_value
``````````

::

   sil-instruction ::= 'move_value' '[lexical]'? sil-operand

   %1 = move_value %0 : $@_moveOnly A

Performs a move of the operand, ending its lifetime. When ownership is enabled,
it always takes in an `@owned T` and produces a new `@owned @_moveOnly T`. 

1. For trivial types, this is equivalent to just propagating through the trivial
   value.
2. For reference types, this is equivalent to ending the lifetime of the
   operand, beginning a new lifetime for the result and setting the result to
   the value of the operand.
3. For aggregates, the operation is equivalent to performing a move_value on
   each of its fields recursively.

After ownership is lowered, we leave in the move_value to provide a place for
IRGenSIL to know to store a potentially new variable (in case the move was
associated with a let binding).

NOTE: This instruction is used in an experimental feature called 'move only
values'. A move_value instruction is an instruction that introduces (or injects)
a type `T` into the move only value space.

The ``lexical`` attribute specifies that the value corresponds to a local
variable in the Swift source.


drop_deinit
```````````

::

   sil-instruction ::= 'drop_deinit' sil-operand

   %1 = drop_deinit %0 : $T
   // T must be a move-only type
   // %1 is an @owned T
   %3 = drop_deinit %2 : $*T
   // T must be a move-only type
   // %2 has type *T

This instruction is a marker for a following destroy instruction to suppress
the call of the move-only type's deinitializer.
The instruction accepts an object or address type.
If its argument is an object type it takes in an `@owned T` and produces a new
`@owned T`. If its argument is an address type, it's an identity projection.

The instruction is only valid in ownership SIL.

release_value
`````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'release_value' sil-operand

  release_value %0 : $A

Destroys a loadable value, by releasing any retainable pointers within it.

This is defined to be equivalent to storing the operand into a stack
allocation and using 'destroy_addr' to destroy the object there.

For trivial types, this is a no-op.  For reference types, this is
equivalent to a ``strong_release``.  For ``@unowned`` types, this is
equivalent to an ``unowned_release``.  In each of these cases, those
are the preferred forms.

For aggregate types, especially enums, it is typically both easier
and more efficient to reason about aggregate destroys than it is to
reason about destroys of the subobjects.

release_value_addr
``````````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'release_value_addr' sil-operand

  release_value_addr %0 : $*A

Destroys a loadable value inside given address,
by releasing any retainable pointers within it.

unmanaged_release_value
```````````````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'unmanaged_release_value' sil-value

  unmanaged_release_value %0 : $A

This instruction has the same local semantics as ``release_value`` but:

* Is valid in ownership qualified SIL.
* Is not intended to be statically paired at compile time by the compiler.

The intention is that this instruction is used to implement unmanaged
constructs.

destroy_value
`````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'destroy_value' '[poison]'? sil-operand

  destroy_value %0 : $A

Destroys a loadable value, by releasing any retainable pointers within it.

This is defined to be equivalent to storing the operand into a stack
allocation and using 'destroy_addr' to destroy the object there.

For trivial types, this is a no-op.  For reference types, this is
equivalent to a ``strong_release``.  For ``@unowned`` types, this is
equivalent to an ``unowned_release``.  In each of these cases, those
are the preferred forms.

For aggregate types, especially enums, it is typically both easier
and more efficient to reason about aggregate destroys than it is to
reason about destroys of the subobjects.

autorelease_value
`````````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'autorelease_value' sil-operand

  autorelease_value %0 : $A

*TODO* Complete this section.

tuple
`````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'tuple' sil-tuple-elements
  sil-tuple-elements ::= '(' (sil-operand (',' sil-operand)*)? ')'
  sil-tuple-elements ::= sil-type '(' (sil-value (',' sil-value)*)? ')'

  %1 = tuple (%a : $A, %b : $B, ...)
  // $A, $B, etc. must be loadable non-address types
  // %1 will be of the "simple" tuple type $(A, B, ...)

  %1 = tuple $(a:A, b:B, ...) (%a, %b, ...)
  // (a:A, b:B, ...) must be a loadable tuple type
  // %1 will be of the type $(a:A, b:B, ...)

Creates a loadable tuple value by aggregating multiple loadable values.

If the destination type is a "simple" tuple type, that is, it has no keyword
argument labels or variadic arguments, then the first notation can be used,
which interleaves the element values and types. If keyword names or variadic
fields are specified, then the second notation must be used, which spells out
the tuple type before the fields.

tuple_extract
`````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'tuple_extract' sil-operand ',' int-literal

  %1 = tuple_extract %0 : $(T...), 123
  // %0 must be of a loadable tuple type $(T...)
  // %1 will be of the type of the selected element of %0

Extracts an element from a loadable tuple value.


tuple_pack_extract
``````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'tuple_pack_extract' sil-value 'of' sil-operand 'as' sil-type

  %value = tuple_pack_extract %index of %tuple : $(repeat each T) as $@pack_element("01234567-89AB-CDEF-0123-000000000000") U
  // %index must be of $Builtin.PackIndex type
  // %tuple must be of tuple type
  // %addr will be the result type specified by the 'as' clause

Extracts a value at a dynamic index from a tuple value.

Only valid in opaque values mode.  Lowered by AddressLowering to
tuple_pack_element_addr.  For more details, see that instruction.

tuple_element_addr
``````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'tuple_element_addr' sil-operand ',' int-literal

  %1 = tuple_element_addr %0 : $*(T...), 123
  // %0 must of a $*(T...) address-of-tuple type
  // %1 will be of address type $*U where U is the type of the 123rd
  //   element of T

Given the address of a tuple in memory, derives the
address of an element within that value.

tuple_pack_element_addr
``````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'tuple_pack_element_addr' sil-value 'of' sil-operand 'as' sil-type

  %addr = tuple_pack_element_addr %index of %tuple : $*(repeat each T) as $*@pack_element("01234567-89AB-CDEF-0123-000000000000") U
  // %index must be of $Builtin.PackIndex type
  // %tuple must be of address-of-tuple type
  // %addr will be of the result type specified by the 'as' clause

Given the address of a tuple in memory, derives the address of a
dynamic element within that value.

The *induced pack type* for the tuple operand is the indirect pack
type corresponding to the types of the tuple elements and tuple
element expansions, exactly as if the labels were removed and the
parentheses were replaced with `Pack{`...`}`.  For example, for the
tuple type `(repeat Optional<each T>, Float)`, the induced pack type
is `Pack{repeat Optional<each T>, Float}`.

The pack index operand must be a pack indexing instruction.  The result
type (given by the `as` clause) must be structurally well-typed for the
pack index and the induced pack type; see the structural type matching
rules for pack indices.

destructure_tuple
`````````````````

::

   sil-instruction ::= 'destructure_tuple' sil-operand

   (%elt1, ..., %eltn) = destructure_tuple %0 : $(Elt1Ty, ..., EltNTy)
   // %0 must be a tuple of type $(Elt1Ty, ..., EltNTy)
   // %eltN must have the type $EltNTy

Given a tuple value, split the value into its constituent elements.

struct
``````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'struct' sil-type '(' (sil-operand (',' sil-operand)*)? ')'

  %1 = struct $S (%a : $A, %b : $B, ...)
  // $S must be a loadable struct type
  // $A, $B, ... must be the types of the physical 'var' fields of $S in order
  // %1 will be of type $S

Creates a value of a loadable struct type by aggregating multiple loadable
values.

struct_extract
``````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'struct_extract' sil-operand ',' sil-decl-ref

  %1 = struct_extract %0 : $S, #S.field
  // %0 must be of a loadable struct type $S
  // #S.field must be a physical 'var' field of $S
  // %1 will be of the type of the selected field of %0

Extracts a physical field from a loadable struct value.

struct_element_addr
```````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'struct_element_addr' sil-operand ',' sil-decl-ref

  %1 = struct_element_addr %0 : $*S, #S.field
  // %0 must be of a struct type $S
  // #S.field must be a physical 'var' field of $S
  // %1 will be the address of the selected field of %0

Given the address of a struct value in memory, derives the address of a
physical field within the value.

destructure_struct
``````````````````

::

   sil-instruction ::= 'destructure_struct' sil-operand

   (%elt1, ..., %eltn) = destructure_struct %0 : $S
   // %0 must be a struct of type $S
   // %eltN must have the same type as the Nth field of $S

Given a struct, split the struct into its constituent fields.

object
``````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'object' sil-type '(' (sil-operand (',' sil-operand)*)? ')'

  object $T (%a : $A, %b : $B, ...)
  // $T must be a non-generic or bound generic reference type
  // The first operands must match the stored properties of T
  // Optionally there may be more elements, which are tail-allocated to T

Constructs a statically initialized object. This instruction can only appear
as final instruction in a global variable static initializer list.

ref_element_addr
````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'ref_element_addr' '[immutable]'? sil-operand ',' sil-decl-ref

  %1 = ref_element_addr %0 : $C, #C.field
  // %0 must be a value of class type $C
  // #C.field must be a non-static physical field of $C
  // %1 will be of type $*U where U is the type of the selected field
  //   of C

Given an instance of a class, derives the address of a physical instance
variable inside the instance. It is undefined behavior if the class value
is null.

The ``immutable`` attribute specifies that all loads of the same instance
variable from the same class reference operand are guaranteed to yield the
same value.

ref_tail_addr
`````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'ref_tail_addr' '[immutable]'? sil-operand ',' sil-type

  %1 = ref_tail_addr %0 : $C, $E
  // %0 must be a value of class type $C with tail-allocated elements $E
  // %1 will be of type $*E

Given an instance of a class, which is created with tail-allocated array(s),
derives the address of the first element of the first tail-allocated array.
This instruction is used to project the first tail-allocated element from an
object which is created by an ``alloc_ref`` with ``tail_elems``.
It is undefined behavior if the class instance does not have tail-allocated
arrays or if the element-types do not match.

The ``immutable`` attribute specifies that all loads of the same instance
variable from the same class reference operand are guaranteed to yield the
same value.

Enums
~~~~~

These instructions construct and manipulate values of enum type. Loadable enum
values are created with the `enum`_ instruction. Address-only enums require
two-step initialization. First, if the case requires data, that data is stored
into the enum at the address projected by `init_enum_data_addr`_. This step is
skipped for cases without data. Finally, the tag for the enum is injected with
an `inject_enum_addr`_ instruction::

  enum AddressOnlyEnum {
    case HasData(AddressOnlyType)
    case NoData
  }

  sil @init_with_data : $(AddressOnlyType) -> AddressOnlyEnum {
  entry(%0 : $*AddressOnlyEnum, %1 : $*AddressOnlyType):
    // Store the data argument for the case.
    %2 = init_enum_data_addr %0 : $*AddressOnlyEnum, #AddressOnlyEnum.HasData!enumelt
    copy_addr [take] %1 to [init] %2 : $*AddressOnlyType
    // Inject the tag.
    inject_enum_addr %0 : $*AddressOnlyEnum, #AddressOnlyEnum.HasData!enumelt
    return
  }

  sil @init_without_data : $() -> AddressOnlyEnum {
    // No data. We only need to inject the tag.
    inject_enum_addr %0 : $*AddressOnlyEnum, #AddressOnlyEnum.NoData!enumelt
    return
  }

Accessing the value of a loadable enum is inseparable from dispatching on its
discriminator and is done with the `switch_enum`_ terminator::

  enum Foo { case A(Int), B(String) }

  sil @switch_foo : $(Foo) -> () {
  entry(%foo : $Foo):
    switch_enum %foo : $Foo, case #Foo.A!enumelt: a_dest, case #Foo.B!enumelt: b_dest

  a_dest(%a : $Int):
    /* use %a */

  b_dest(%b : $String):
    /* use %b */
  }

An address-only enum can be tested by branching on it using the
`switch_enum_addr`_ terminator. Its value can then be taken by destructively
projecting the enum value with `unchecked_take_enum_data_addr`_::

  enum Foo<T> { case A(T), B(String) }

  sil @switch_foo : $<T> (Foo<T>) -> () {
  entry(%foo : $*Foo<T>):
    switch_enum_addr %foo : $*Foo<T>, case #Foo.A!enumelt: a_dest, \
      case #Foo.B!enumelt: b_dest

  a_dest:
    %a = unchecked_take_enum_data_addr %foo : $*Foo<T>, #Foo.A!enumelt
    /* use %a */

  b_dest:
    %b = unchecked_take_enum_data_addr %foo : $*Foo<T>, #Foo.B!enumelt
    /* use %b */
  }

Both `switch_enum`_ and `switch_enum_addr`_ must include a ``default`` case
unless the enum can be exhaustively switched in the current function, i.e. when
the compiler can be sure that it knows all possible present and future values
of the enum in question. This is generally true for enums defined in Swift, but
there are two exceptions: *non-frozen enums* declared in libraries compiled
with the ``-enable-library-evolution`` flag, which may grow new cases in the future in
an ABI-compatible way; and enums marked with the ``objc`` attribute, for which
other bit patterns are permitted for compatibility with C. All enums imported
from C are treated as "non-exhaustive" for the same reason, regardless of the
presence or value of the ``enum_extensibility`` Clang attribute.

(See `SE-0192`__ for more information about non-frozen enums.)

__ https://github.com/apple/swift-evolution/blob/main/proposals/0192-non-exhaustive-enums.md

enum
````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'enum' sil-type ',' sil-decl-ref (',' sil-operand)?

  %1 = enum $U, #U.EmptyCase!enumelt
  %1 = enum $U, #U.DataCase!enumelt, %0 : $T
  // $U must be an enum type
  // #U.DataCase or #U.EmptyCase must be a case of enum $U
  // If #U.Case has a data type $T, %0 must be a value of type $T
  // If #U.Case has no data type, the operand must be omitted
  // %1 will be of type $U

Creates a loadable enum value in the given ``case``. If the ``case`` has a
data type, the enum value will contain the operand value.

unchecked_enum_data
```````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'unchecked_enum_data' sil-operand ',' sil-decl-ref

  %1 = unchecked_enum_data %0 : $U, #U.DataCase!enumelt
  // $U must be an enum type
  // #U.DataCase must be a case of enum $U with data
  // %1 will be of object type $T for the data type of case U.DataCase

Unsafely extracts the payload data for an enum ``case`` from an enum value.
It is undefined behavior if the enum does not contain a value of the given
case.

init_enum_data_addr
```````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'init_enum_data_addr' sil-operand ',' sil-decl-ref

  %1 = init_enum_data_addr %0 : $*U, #U.DataCase!enumelt
  // $U must be an enum type
  // #U.DataCase must be a case of enum $U with data
  // %1 will be of address type $*T for the data type of case U.DataCase

Projects the address of the data for an enum ``case`` inside an enum. This
does not modify the enum or check its value. It is intended to be used as
part of the initialization sequence for an address-only enum. Storing to
the ``init_enum_data_addr`` for a case followed by ``inject_enum_addr`` with that
same case is guaranteed to result in a fully-initialized enum value of that
case being stored. Loading from the ``init_enum_data_addr`` of an initialized
enum value or injecting a mismatched case tag is undefined behavior.

The address is invalidated as soon as the operand enum is fully initialized by
an ``inject_enum_addr``.

inject_enum_addr
````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'inject_enum_addr' sil-operand ',' sil-decl-ref

  inject_enum_addr %0 : $*U, #U.Case!enumelt
  // $U must be an enum type
  // #U.Case must be a case of enum $U
  // %0 will be overlaid with the tag for #U.Case

Initializes the enum value referenced by the given address by overlaying the
tag for the given case. If the case has no data, this instruction is sufficient
to initialize the enum value. If the case has data, the data must be stored
into the enum at the ``init_enum_data_addr`` address for the case *before*
``inject_enum_addr`` is applied. It is undefined behavior if
``inject_enum_addr`` is applied for a case with data to an uninitialized enum,
or if ``inject_enum_addr`` is applied for a case with data when data for a
mismatched case has been stored to the enum.

unchecked_take_enum_data_addr
`````````````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'unchecked_take_enum_data_addr' sil-operand ',' sil-decl-ref

  %1 = unchecked_take_enum_data_addr %0 : $*U, #U.DataCase!enumelt
  // $U must be an enum type
  // #U.DataCase must be a case of enum $U with data
  // %1 will be of address type $*T for the data type of case U.DataCase

Invalidates an enum value, and takes the address of the payload for the given
enum ``case`` in-place in memory. The referenced enum value is no longer valid,
but the payload value referenced by the result address is valid and must be
destroyed. It is undefined behavior if the referenced enum does not contain a
value of the given ``case``. The result shares memory with the original enum
value; the enum memory cannot be reinitialized as an enum until the payload has
also been invalidated.

(1.0 only)

For the first payloaded case of an enum, ``unchecked_take_enum_data_addr``
is guaranteed to have no side effects; the enum value will not be invalidated.

select_enum
```````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'select_enum' sil-operand sil-select-case*
                      (',' 'default' sil-value)?
                      ':' sil-type

  %n = select_enum %0 : $U,      \
    case #U.Case1!enumelt: %1,           \
    case #U.Case2!enumelt: %2, /* ... */ \
    default %3 : $T

  // $U must be an enum type
  // #U.Case1, Case2, etc. must be cases of enum $U
  // %1, %2, %3, etc. must have type $T
  // %n has type $T

Selects one of the "case" or "default" operands based on the case of an
enum value. This is equivalent to a trivial `switch_enum`_ branch sequence::

  entry:
    switch_enum %0 : $U,            \
      case #U.Case1!enumelt: bb1,           \
      case #U.Case2!enumelt: bb2, /* ... */ \
      default bb_default
  bb1:
    br cont(%1 : $T) // value for #U.Case1
  bb2:
    br cont(%2 : $T) // value for #U.Case2
  bb_default:
    br cont(%3 : $T) // value for default
  cont(%n : $T):
    // use argument %n

but turns the control flow dependency into a data flow dependency.
For address-only enums, `select_enum_addr`_ offers the same functionality for
an indirectly referenced enum value in memory.

Like `switch_enum`_, `select_enum`_ must have a ``default`` case unless the
enum can be exhaustively switched in the current function.

select_enum_addr
````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'select_enum_addr' sil-operand sil-select-case*
                      (',' 'default' sil-value)?
                      ':' sil-type

  %n = select_enum_addr %0 : $*U,      \
    case #U.Case1!enumelt: %1,           \
    case #U.Case2!enumelt: %2, /* ... */ \
    default %3 : $T

  // %0 must be the address of an enum type $*U
  // #U.Case1, Case2, etc. must be cases of enum $U
  // %1, %2, %3, etc. must have type $T
  // %n has type $T

Selects one of the "case" or "default" operands based on the case of the
referenced enum value. This is the address-only counterpart to
`select_enum`_.

Like `switch_enum_addr`_, `select_enum_addr`_ must have a ``default`` case
unless the enum can be exhaustively switched in the current function.

Protocol and Protocol Composition Types
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

These instructions create and manipulate values of protocol and protocol
composition type.  From SIL's perspective, protocol and protocol composition
types consist of an *existential container*, which is a generic container for
a value of unknown runtime type, referred to as an "existential type" in type
theory. The existential container consists of a reference to the
*witness table(s)* for the protocol(s) referred to by the protocol type and a
reference to the underlying *concrete value*, which may be either stored
in-line inside the existential container for small values or allocated
separately into a buffer owned and managed by the existential container for
larger values.

Depending on the constraints applied to an existential type, an existential
container may use one of several representations:

- **Opaque existential containers**: If none of the protocols in a protocol
  type are class protocols, then the existential container for that type is
  address-only and referred to in the implementation as an *opaque existential
  container*. The value semantics of the existential container propagate to the
  contained concrete value. Applying `copy_addr`_ to an opaque existential
  container copies the contained concrete value, deallocating or reallocating
  the destination container's owned buffer if necessary. Applying
  `destroy_addr`_ to an opaque existential container destroys the concrete
  value and deallocates any buffers owned by the existential container. The
  following instructions manipulate opaque existential containers:

  * `init_existential_addr`_
  * `open_existential_addr`_
  * `deinit_existential_addr`_

- **Opaque existential containers loadable types**: In the SIL Opaque Values
  mode of operation, we take an opaque value as-is.
  Said value might be replaced with one of the _addr instructions above
  before IR generation.
  The following instructions manipulate "loadable" opaque existential containers:

  * `init_existential_value`_
  * `open_existential_value`_
  * `deinit_existential_value`_

- **Class existential containers**: If a protocol type is constrained by one or
  more class protocols, then the existential container for that type is
  loadable and referred to in the implementation as a *class existential
  container*. Class existential containers have reference semantics and can be
  ``retain``-ed and ``release``-d. The following instructions manipulate class
  existential containers:

  * `init_existential_ref`_
  * `open_existential_ref`_

- **Metatype existential containers**: Existential metatypes use a
  container consisting of the type metadata for the conforming type along with
  the protocol conformances. Metatype existential containers are trivial types.
  The following instructions manipulate metatype existential containers:

  * `init_existential_metatype`_
  * `open_existential_metatype`_

- **Boxed existential containers**: The standard library ``Error`` protocol
  uses a size-optimized reference-counted container, which indirectly stores
  the conforming value. Boxed existential containers can be ``retain``-ed
  and ``release``-d. The following instructions manipulate boxed existential
  containers:

  * `alloc_existential_box`_
  * `project_existential_box`_
  * `open_existential_box`_
  * `open_existential_box_value`_
  * `dealloc_existential_box`_

Some existential types may additionally support specialized representations
when they contain certain known concrete types. For example, when Objective-C
interop is available, the ``Error`` protocol existential supports
a class existential container representation for ``NSError`` objects, so it
can be initialized from one using `init_existential_ref`_ instead of the
more expensive `alloc_existential_box`_::

  bb(%nserror: $NSError):
    // The slow general way to form an Error, allocating a box and
    // storing to its value buffer:
    %error1 = alloc_existential_box $Error, $NSError
    %addr = project_existential_box $NSError in %error1 : $Error
    strong_retain %nserror: $NSError
    store %nserror to %addr : $NSError

    // The fast path supported for NSError:
    strong_retain %nserror: $NSError
    %error2 = init_existential_ref %nserror: $NSError, $Error

init_existential_addr
`````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'init_existential_addr' sil-operand ',' sil-type

  %1 = init_existential_addr %0 : $*P, $T
  // %0 must be of a $*P address type for non-class protocol or protocol
  //   composition type P
  // $T must be an AST type that fulfills protocol(s) P
  // %1 will be of type $*T', where T' is the maximally abstract lowering
  //    of type T

Partially initializes the memory referenced by ``%0`` with an existential
container prepared to contain a value of type ``$T``. The result of the
instruction is an address referencing the storage for the contained value, which
remains uninitialized. The contained value must be ``store``-d or
``copy_addr``-ed to in order for the existential value to be fully initialized.
If the existential container needs to be destroyed while the contained value
is uninitialized, `deinit_existential_addr`_ must be used to do so. A fully
initialized existential container can be destroyed with `destroy_addr`_ as
usual. It is undefined behavior to `destroy_addr`_ a partially-initialized
existential container.

init_existential_value
``````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'init_existential_value' sil-operand ',' sil-type ','
                                               sil-type

  %1 = init_existential_value %0 : $L, $C, $P
  // %0 must be of loadable type $L, lowered from AST type $C, conforming to
  //    protocol(s) $P
  // %1 will be of type $P

Loadable version of the above: Inits-up the existential
container prepared to contain a value of type ``$P``.

deinit_existential_addr
```````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'deinit_existential_addr' sil-operand

  deinit_existential_addr %0 : $*P
  // %0 must be of a $*P address type for non-class protocol or protocol
  // composition type P

Undoes the partial initialization performed by
`init_existential_addr`_.  `deinit_existential_addr`_ is only valid for
existential containers that have been partially initialized by
`init_existential_addr`_ but haven't had their contained value initialized.
A fully initialized existential must be destroyed with `destroy_addr`_.

deinit_existential_value
````````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'deinit_existential_value' sil-operand

  deinit_existential_value %0 : $P
  // %0 must be of a $P opaque type for non-class protocol or protocol
  // composition type P

Undoes the partial initialization performed by
`init_existential_value`_.  `deinit_existential_value`_ is only valid for
existential containers that have been partially initialized by
`init_existential_value`_ but haven't had their contained value initialized.
A fully initialized existential must be destroyed with `destroy_value`_.

open_existential_addr
`````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'open_existential_addr' sil-allowed-access sil-operand 'to' sil-type
  sil-allowed-access ::= 'immutable_access'
  sil-allowed-access ::= 'mutable_access'

  %1 = open_existential_addr immutable_access %0 : $*P to $*@opened P
  // %0 must be of a $*P type for non-class protocol or protocol composition
  //   type P
  // $*@opened P must be a unique archetype that refers to an opened
  // existential type P.
  // %1 will be of type $*@opened P

Obtains the address of the concrete value inside the existential
container referenced by ``%0``. The protocol conformances associated
with this existential container are associated directly with the
archetype ``$*@opened P``. This pointer can be used with any operation
on archetypes, such as ``witness_method`` assuming this operation obeys the
access constraint: The returned address can either allow ``mutable_access`` or
``immutable_access``. Users of the returned address may only consume
(e.g ``destroy_addr`` or ``copy_addr [take]``) or mutate the value at the
address if they have ``mutable_access``.

open_existential_value
``````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'open_existential_value' sil-operand 'to' sil-type

  %1 = open_existential_value %0 : $P to $@opened P
  // %0 must be of a $P type for non-class protocol or protocol composition
  //   type P
  // $@opened P must be a unique archetype that refers to an opened
  // existential type P.
  // %1 will be of type $@opened P

Loadable version of the above: Opens-up the existential
container associated with ``%0``. The protocol conformances associated
with this existential container are associated directly with the
archetype ``$@opened P``.

init_existential_ref
````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'init_existential_ref' sil-operand ':' sil-type ','
                                             sil-type

  %1 = init_existential_ref %0 : $C' : $C, $P
  // %0 must be of class type $C', lowered from AST type $C, conforming to
  //    protocol(s) $P
  // $P must be a class protocol or protocol composition type
  // %1 will be of type $P

Creates a class existential container of type ``$P`` containing a reference to
the class instance ``%0``.

open_existential_ref
````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'open_existential_ref' sil-operand 'to' sil-type

  %1 = open_existential_ref %0 : $P to $@opened P
  // %0 must be of a $P type for a class protocol or protocol composition
  // $@opened P must be a unique archetype that refers to an opened
  //   existential type P
  // %1 will be of type $@opened P

Extracts the class instance reference from a class existential
container. The protocol conformances associated with this existential
container are associated directly with the archetype ``@opened P``. This
pointer can be used with any operation on archetypes, such as
`witness_method`_. When the operand is of metatype type, the result
will be the metatype of the opened archetype.

init_existential_metatype
`````````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'init_existential_metatype' sil-operand ',' sil-type

  %1 = init_existential_metatype $0 : $@<rep> T.Type, $@<rep> P.Type
  // %0 must be of a metatype type $@<rep> T.Type where T: P
  // %@<rep> P.Type must be the existential metatype of a protocol or protocol
  //    composition, with the same metatype representation <rep>
  // %1 will be of type $@<rep> P.Type

Creates a metatype existential container of type ``$P.Type`` containing the
conforming metatype of ``$T``.

open_existential_metatype
`````````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'open_existential_metatype' sil-operand 'to' sil-type

  %1 = open_existential_metatype %0 : $@<rep> P.Type to $@<rep> (@opened P).Type
  // %0 must be of a $P.Type existential metatype for a protocol or protocol
  //    composition
  // $@<rep> (@opened P).Type must be the metatype of a unique archetype that
  //   refers to an opened existential type P, with the same metatype
  //   representation <rep>
  // %1 will be of type $@<rep> (@opened P).Type

Extracts the metatype from an existential metatype. The protocol conformances associated with this existential
container are associated directly with the archetype ``@opened P``.

alloc_existential_box
`````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'alloc_existential_box' sil-type ',' sil-type

  %1 = alloc_existential_box $P, $T
  // $P must be a protocol or protocol composition type with boxed
  //   representation
  // $T must be an AST type that conforms to P
  // %1 will be of type $P

Allocates a boxed existential container of type ``$P`` with space to hold a
value of type ``$T'``. The box is not fully initialized until a valid value
has been stored into the box. If the box must be deallocated before it is
fully initialized, `dealloc_existential_box`_ must be used. A fully
initialized box can be ``retain``-ed and ``release``-d like any
reference-counted type.  The `project_existential_box`_ instruction is used
to retrieve the address of the value inside the container.

project_existential_box
```````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'project_existential_box' sil-type 'in' sil-operand

  %1 = project_existential_box $T in %0 : $P
  // %0 must be a value of boxed protocol or protocol composition type $P
  // $T must be the most abstracted lowering of the AST type for which the box
  // was allocated
  // %1 will be of type $*T

Projects the address of the value inside a boxed existential container.
The address is dependent on the lifetime of the owner reference ``%0``.
It is undefined behavior if the concrete type ``$T`` is not the same type for
which the box was allocated with `alloc_existential_box`_.

open_existential_box
````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'open_existential_box' sil-operand 'to' sil-type

  %1 = open_existential_box %0 : $P to $*@opened P
  // %0 must be a value of boxed protocol or protocol composition type $P
  // %@opened P must be the address type of a unique archetype that refers to
  ///   an opened existential type P
  // %1 will be of type $*@opened P

Projects the address of the value inside a boxed existential container, and
uses the enclosed type and protocol conformance metadata to bind the
opened archetype ``$@opened P``. The result address is dependent on both
the owning box and the enclosing function; in order to "open" a boxed
existential that has directly adopted a class reference, temporary scratch
space may need to have been allocated.

open_existential_box_value
``````````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'open_existential_box_value' sil-operand 'to' sil-type

  %1 = open_existential_box_value %0 : $P to $@opened P
  // %0 must be a value of boxed protocol or protocol composition type $P
  // %@opened P must be a unique archetype that refers to an opened
  //   existential type P
  // %1 will be of type $@opened P

Projects the value inside a boxed existential container, and uses the enclosed
type and protocol conformance metadata to bind the opened archetype ``$@opened
P``.

dealloc_existential_box
```````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'dealloc_existential_box' sil-operand, sil-type

  dealloc_existential_box %0 : $P, $T
  // %0 must be an uninitialized box of boxed existential container type $P
  // $T must be the AST type for which the box was allocated

Deallocates a boxed existential container. The value inside the existential
buffer is not destroyed; either the box must be uninitialized, or the value
must have been projected out and destroyed beforehand. It is undefined behavior
if the concrete type ``$T`` is not the same type for which the box was
allocated with `alloc_existential_box`_.

Blocks
~~~~~~

project_block_storage
`````````````````````
::

   sil-instruction ::= 'project_block_storage' sil-operand ':' sil-type

init_block_storage_header
`````````````````````````

*TODO* Fill this in. The printing of this instruction looks incomplete on trunk currently.

Pack Indexing
~~~~~~~~~~~~~

These instructions are collectively called the *pack indexing instructions*.
Each of them produces a single value of type ``Builtin.PackIndex``.
Instructions that consume pack indices generally provide a projected
element type which is required to be structurally well-typed for the
given pack index and the actual pack type they index into.  This rule
depends on the exact pack indexing instruction used and is described
in a section above.

All pack indexing instructions carry an **indexed pack type**, which
is a formal type that must be a pack type.  Pack indexing instructions
can be used to index into any pack with the same shape as the indexed
pack type.  The components of the actual indexed pack do not need to be
exactly the same as the components of the indexing instruction's
indexed pack type as long as they contain expansions in the same
places and those expansions expand pack parameters with the same shape.

scalar_pack_index
`````````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'scalar_pack_index' int-literal 'of' sil-type

Produce the dynamic pack index of a scalar (non-pack-expansion)
component of a pack.  The type operand is the indexed pack type.  The
integer operand is an index into the components of this pack type; it
must be in range and resolve to a component that is not a pack expansion.

Substitution must adjust the component index appropriately so that
it still refers to the same component.  For example, if the pack
type is ``Pack{repeat each T, Int}``, and substitution replaces ``T``
with ``Pack{Float, repeat each U}``, a component index of 1 must be
adjusted to 2 so that it still refers to the ``Int`` element.

pack_pack_index
```````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'pack_pack_index' int-literal, sil-value 'of' sil-type

Produce the dynamic pack index of an element of a slice of a pack.
The type operand is the indexed pack type.  The integer operand is an
index into the components of this pack type and must be in range.
The value operand is the index in the pack slice and must be another
pack indexing instruction.  The pack slice starts at the given index
and extends for a number of components equal to the number of
components in the indexed pack type of the operand.  The pack type
induced from the indexed pack type by this slice must have the same
shape as the indexed pack type of the operand.

Substitution must adjust the component index appropriately so that
it still refers to the same component.  For example, if the pack
type is ``Pack{repeat each T, Int}``, and substitution replaces ``T``
with ``Pack{Float, repeat each U}``, a component index of 1 must be
adjusted to 2 so that the slice will continue to begin at the
``Int`` element.

Note how, in the example above, the slice does not contain any pack
expansions.  (It is either empty or the singleton pack ``Pack{Int}``.)
This is not typically how this instruction is used but can easily occur
after inlining or other type substitution.

dynamic_pack_index
``````````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'dynamic_pack_index' sil-value 'of' sil-type

Produce the dynamic pack index of an unknown element of a pack.
The type operand is the indexed pack type.  The value operand is
a dynamic index into the dynamic elements of the pack and must have
type ``Builtin.Word``.  The instruction has undefined behavior if the
index is not in range for the pack.

Variadic Generics
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

pack_length
```````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'pack_length' sil-type

Produce the dynamic length of the given pack, which must be a formal
pack type.  The value of the instruction has type ``Builtin.Word``.

open_pack_element
`````````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'open_pack_element' sil-value 'of' generic-parameter-list+ 'at' sil-apply-substitution-list ',' 'shape' sil-type ',' 'uuid' string-literal

Binds one or more opened pack element archetypes in the local type
environment.

The generic signature is the *generalization signature* of the pack
elements.  This signature need not be related in any way to the generic
signature (if any) of the enclosing SIL function.

The ``shape`` type operand is resolved in the context of the
generalization signature.  It must name a pack parameter.  Archetypes
will be bound for all pack parameters with the same shape as this
parameter.

The ``uuid`` operand must be an RFC 4122 UUID string, which is
composed of 32 hex digits separated by hyphens in the pattern
``8-4-4-4-12``.  There must not be any other ``open_pack_element``
instruction with this UUID in the SIL function.  Opened pack element
archetypes are identified by this UUID and are different from any
other opened pack element archetypes in the function, even if the
operands otherwise match exactly.

The value operand is the pack index and must be the result of a
pack indexing instruction.

The substitution list matches the generalization signature and
provides contextual bindings for all of the type information there.
As usual, the substitutions for any pack parameters must be pack types.
For pack parameters with the same shape as the shape operand, these
pack substitutions must have the same shape as the indexed pack type
of the pack index operand (and therefore the same shape as each other).

The cost of this instruction is proportionate to the sum of the number
of pack parameters in the generalization signature with the same shape
as the shape type and the number of protocol conformance requirements
the generalization signature imposes on those parameters and their
associated types.  If any of this information is not required for the
correct execution of the SIL function, simplifying the generalization
signature used by the``open_pack_element`` can be a significant
optimization.

pack_element_get
````````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'pack_element_get' sil-value 'of' sil-operand 'as' sil-type

Extracts the value previously stored in a pack at a particular index.
If the pack element is uninitialized, this has undefined behavior.

Ownership is unclear for direct packs.

The first operand is the pack index and must be a pack indexing instruction.
The second operand is the pack and must be the address of a pack value.
The type operand is the projected element type of the pack element and
must be structurally well-typed for the given index and pack type;
see the structural type matching rules for pack indices.

pack_element_set
````````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'pack_element_set' sil-operand 'into' sil-value 'of' sil-operand

Places a value in a pack at a particular index.

Ownership is unclear for direct packs.

The first operand is the new element value.  The second operand is the
pack index and must be a pack indexing instruction.  The third operand
is the pack and must be the address of a pack value.  The type of the
element value operand is the projected element type of the pack element
and must be structurally well-typed for the given index and pack type;
see the structural type matching rules for pack indices.

Unchecked Conversions
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

These instructions implement type conversions which are not checked. These are
either user-level conversions that are always safe and do not need to be
checked, or implementation detail conversions that are unchecked for
performance or flexibility.

upcast
``````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'upcast' sil-operand 'to' sil-type

  %1 = upcast %0 : $D to $B
  // $D and $B must be class types or metatypes, with B a superclass of D
  // %1 will have type $B

Represents a conversion from a derived class instance or metatype to a
superclass, or from a base-class-constrained archetype to its base class.

address_to_pointer
``````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'address_to_pointer' ('[' 'stack_protection' ']')? sil-operand 'to' sil-type

  %1 = address_to_pointer %0 : $*T to $Builtin.RawPointer
  // %0 must be of an address type $*T
  // %1 will be of type Builtin.RawPointer

Creates a ``Builtin.RawPointer`` value corresponding to the address ``%0``.
Converting the result pointer back to an address of the same type will give
an address equivalent to ``%0``. It is undefined behavior to cast the
``RawPointer`` to any address type other than its original address type or
any `layout compatible types`_.

The ``stack_protection`` flag indicates that stack protection is done for
the pointer origin.

pointer_to_address
``````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'pointer_to_address' sil-operand 'to' ('[' 'strict' ']')? ('[' 'invariant' ']')? ('[' 'alignment' '=' alignment ']')? sil-type
  alignment ::= [0-9]+

  %1 = pointer_to_address %0 : $Builtin.RawPointer to [strict] $*T
  // %1 will be of type $*T

Creates an address value corresponding to the ``Builtin.RawPointer`` value
``%0``.  Converting a ``RawPointer`` back to an address of the same type as
its originating `address_to_pointer`_ instruction gives back an equivalent
address. It is undefined behavior to cast the ``RawPointer`` back to any type
other than its original address type or `layout compatible types`_. It is
also undefined behavior to cast a ``RawPointer`` from a heap object to any
address type.

The ``strict`` flag indicates whether the returned address adheres to
strict aliasing.  If true, then the type of each memory access
dependent on this address must be consistent with the memory's bound
type. A memory access from an address that is not strict cannot have
its address substituted with a strict address, even if other nearby
memory accesses at the same location are strict.

The ``invariant`` flag is set if loading from the returned address
always produces the same value.

The ``alignment`` integer value specifies the byte alignment of the
address. ``alignment=0`` is the default, indicating the natural
alignment of ``T``.

unchecked_ref_cast
``````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'unchecked_ref_cast' sil-operand 'to' sil-type

  %1 = unchecked_ref_cast %0 : $A to $B
  // %0 must be an object of type $A
  // $A must be a type with retainable pointer representation
  // %1 will be of type $B
  // $B must be a type with retainable pointer representation

Converts a heap object reference to another heap object reference
type. This conversion is unchecked, and it is undefined behavior if
the destination type is not a valid type for the heap object. The heap
object reference on either side of the cast may be a class
existential, and may be wrapped in one level of Optional.

unchecked_ref_cast_addr
```````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'unchecked_ref_cast_addr'
                      sil-type 'in' sil-operand 'to'
                      sil-type 'in' sil-operand

  unchecked_ref_cast_addr $A in %0 : $*A to $B in %1 : $*B
  // %0 must be the address of an object of type $A
  // $A must be a type with retainable pointer representation
  // %1 must be the address of storage for an object of type $B
  // $B must be a retainable pointer representation

Loads a heap object reference from an address and stores it at the
address of another uninitialized heap object reference. The loaded
reference is always taken, and the stored reference is
initialized. This conversion is unchecked, and it is undefined
behavior if the destination type is not a valid type for the heap
object. The heap object reference on either side of the cast may be a
class existential, and may be wrapped in one level of Optional.

unchecked_addr_cast
```````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'unchecked_addr_cast' sil-operand 'to' sil-type

  %1 = unchecked_addr_cast %0 : $*A to $*B
  // %0 must be an address
  // %1 will be of type $*B

Converts an address to a different address type. Using the resulting
address is undefined unless ``B`` is layout compatible with ``A``. The
layout of ``B`` may be smaller than that of ``A`` as long as the lower
order bytes have identical layout.

unchecked_trivial_bit_cast
``````````````````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'unchecked_trivial_bit_cast' sil-operand 'to' sil-type

  %1 = unchecked_trivial_bit_cast %0 : $Builtin.NativeObject to $Builtin.Word
  // %0 must be an object.
  // %1 must be an object with trivial type.

Bitcasts an object of type ``A`` to be of same sized or smaller type
``B`` with the constraint that ``B`` must be trivial. This can be used
for bitcasting among trivial types, but more importantly is a one way
bitcast from non-trivial types to trivial types.

unchecked_bitwise_cast
``````````````````````
::

   sil-instruction ::= 'unchecked_bitwise_cast' sil-operand 'to' sil-type

   %1 = unchecked_bitwise_cast %0 : $A to $B

Bitwise copies an object of type ``A`` into a new object of type ``B``
of the same size or smaller.

unchecked_value_cast
````````````````````
::

   sil-instruction ::= 'unchecked_value_cast' sil-operand 'to' sil-type

   %1 = unchecked_value_cast %0 : $A to $B

Bitwise copies an object of type ``A`` into a new layout-compatible object of
type ``B`` of the same size.

This instruction is assumed to forward a fixed ownership (set upon its
construction) and lowers to 'unchecked_bitwise_cast' in non-ossa code. This
causes the cast to lose its guarantee of layout-compatibility.

unchecked_ownership_conversion
``````````````````````````````
::

   sil-instruction ::= 'unchecked_ownership_conversion' sil-operand ',' sil-value-ownership-kind 'to' sil-value-ownership-kind

   %1 = unchecked_ownership_conversion %0 : $A, @guaranteed to @owned

Converts its operand to an identical value of the same type but with
different ownership without performing any semantic operations
normally required by for ownership conversion.

This is used in Objective-C compatible destructors to convert a
guaranteed parameter to an owned parameter without performing a
semantic copy.

The resulting value must meet the usual ownership requirements; for
example, a trivial type must have '.none' ownership.

ref_to_raw_pointer
``````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'ref_to_raw_pointer' sil-operand 'to' sil-type

  %1 = ref_to_raw_pointer %0 : $C to $Builtin.RawPointer
  // $C must be a class type, or Builtin.NativeObject, or AnyObject
  // %1 will be of type $Builtin.RawPointer

Converts a heap object reference to a ``Builtin.RawPointer``. The ``RawPointer``
result can be cast back to the originating class type but does not have
ownership semantics. It is undefined behavior to cast a ``RawPointer`` from a
heap object reference to an address using `pointer_to_address`_.

raw_pointer_to_ref
``````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'raw_pointer_to_ref' sil-operand 'to' sil-type

  %1 = raw_pointer_to_ref %0 : $Builtin.RawPointer to $C
  // $C must be a class type, or Builtin.NativeObject, or AnyObject
  // %1 will be of type $C

Converts a ``Builtin.RawPointer`` back to a heap object reference. Casting
a heap object reference to ``Builtin.RawPointer`` back to the same type gives
an equivalent heap object reference (though the raw pointer has no ownership
semantics for the object on its own). It is undefined behavior to cast a
``RawPointer`` to a type unrelated to the dynamic type of the heap object.
It is also undefined behavior to cast a ``RawPointer`` from an address to any
heap object type.

ref_to_unowned
``````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'ref_to_unowned' sil-operand

  %1 = unowned_to_ref %0 : T
  // $T must be a reference type
  // %1 will have type $@unowned T

Adds the ``@unowned`` qualifier to the type of a reference to a heap
object.  No runtime effect.

unowned_to_ref
``````````````

::

  sil-instruction ::= 'unowned_to_ref' sil-operand

  %1 = unowned_to_ref %0 : $@unowned T
  // $T must be a reference type
  // %1 will have type $T

Strips the ``@unowned`` qualifier off the type of a reference to a
heap object.  No runtime effect.

ref_to_unmanaged
````````````````

TODO

unmanaged_to_ref
````````````````

TODO


convert_function
````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'convert_function' sil-operand 'to'
                      ('[' 'without_actually_escaping' ']')?
                      sil-type

  %1 = convert_function %0 : $T -> U to $T' -> U'
  // %0 must be of a function type $T -> U ABI-compatible with $T' -> U'
  //   (see below)
  // %1 will be of type $T' -> U'

Performs a conversion of the function ``%0`` to type ``T``, which must be ABI-
compatible with the type of ``%0``. Function types are ABI-compatible if their
input and result types are tuple types that, after destructuring, differ only
in the following ways:

- Corresponding tuple elements may add, remove, or change keyword names.
  ``(a:Int, b:Float, UnicodeScalar) -> ()`` and ``(x:Int, Float, z:UnicodeScalar) -> ()`` are
  ABI compatible.

- A class tuple element of the destination type may be a superclass or
  subclass of the source type's corresponding tuple element.

The function types may also differ in attributes, except that the
``convention`` attribute cannot be changed and the ``@noescape`` attribute must
not change for functions with context.

A ``convert_function`` cannot be used to change a thick type's ``@noescape``
attribute (``@noescape`` function types with context are not ABI compatible with
escaping function types with context) -- however, thin function types with and
without ``@noescape`` are ABI compatible because they have no context. To
convert from an escaping to a ``@noescape`` thick function type use
``convert_escape_to_noescape``.

With the ``without_actually_escaping`` attribute, the
``convert_function`` may be used to convert a non-escaping closure
into an escaping function type. This attribute must be present
whenever the closure operand has an unboxed capture (via
@inout_aliasable) *and* the resulting function type is escaping. (This
only happens as a result of withoutActuallyEscaping()). If the
attribute is present then the resulting function type must be
escaping, but the operand's function type may or may not be
@noescape. Note that a non-escaping closure may have unboxed captured
even though its SIL function type is "escaping".


convert_escape_to_noescape
```````````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'convert_escape_to_noescape' sil-operand 'to' sil-type
  %1 = convert_escape_to_noescape %0 : $T -> U to $@noescape T' -> U'
  // %0 must be of a function type $T -> U ABI-compatible with $T' -> U'
  //   (see convert_function)
  // %1 will be of the trivial type $@noescape T -> U

Converts an escaping (non-trivial) function type to a ``@noescape`` trivial
function type. Something must guarantee the lifetime of the input ``%0`` for the
duration of the use ``%1``.

A ``convert_escape_to_noescape [not_guaranteed] %opd`` indicates that the
lifetime of its operand was not guaranteed by SILGen and a mandatory pass must
be run to ensure the lifetime of ``%opd``` for the conversion's uses.

A ``convert_escape_to_noescape [escaped]`` indicates that the result was
passed to a function (materializeForSet) which escapes the closure in a way not
expressed by the convert's users. The mandatory pass must ensure the lifetime
in a conservative way.

classify_bridge_object
``````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'classify_bridge_object' sil-operand

  %1 = classify_bridge_object %0 : $Builtin.BridgeObject
  // %1 will be of type (Builtin.Int1, Builtin.Int1)

Decodes the bit representation of the specified ``Builtin.BridgeObject`` value,
returning two bits: the first indicates whether the object is an Objective-C
object, the second indicates whether it is an Objective-C tagged pointer value.

value_to_bridge_object
``````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'value_to_bridge_object' sil-operand

  %1 = value_to_bridge_object %0 : $T
  // %1 will be of type Builtin.BridgeObject

Sets the BridgeObject to a tagged pointer representation holding its operands
by tagging and shifting the operand if needed::

  value_to_bridge_object %x ===
  (x << _swift_abi_ObjCReservedLowBits) | _swift_BridgeObject_TaggedPointerBits

``%x`` thus must not be using any high bits shifted away or the tag bits post-shift.
ARC operations on such tagged values are NOPs.

ref_to_bridge_object
````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'ref_to_bridge_object' sil-operand, sil-operand

  %2 = ref_to_bridge_object %0 : $C, %1 : $Builtin.Word
  // %1 must be of reference type $C
  // %2 will be of type Builtin.BridgeObject

Creates a ``Builtin.BridgeObject`` that references ``%0``, with spare bits
in the pointer representation populated by bitwise-OR-ing in the value of
``%1``. It is undefined behavior if this bitwise OR operation affects the
reference identity of ``%0``; in other words, after the following instruction
sequence::

  %b = ref_to_bridge_object %r : $C, %w : $Builtin.Word
  %r2 = bridge_object_to_ref %b : $Builtin.BridgeObject to $C

``%r`` and ``%r2`` must be equivalent. In particular, it is assumed that
retaining or releasing the ``BridgeObject`` is equivalent to retaining or
releasing the original reference, and that the above ``ref_to_bridge_object``
/ ``bridge_object_to_ref`` round-trip can be folded away to a no-op.

On platforms with ObjC interop, there is additionally a platform-specific
bit in the pointer representation of a ``BridgeObject`` that is reserved to
indicate whether the referenced object has native Swift refcounting. It is
undefined behavior to set this bit when the first operand references an
Objective-C object.

bridge_object_to_ref
````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'bridge_object_to_ref' sil-operand 'to' sil-type

  %1 = bridge_object_to_ref %0 : $Builtin.BridgeObject to $C
  // $C must be a reference type
  // %1 will be of type $C

Extracts the object reference from a ``Builtin.BridgeObject``, masking out any
spare bits.

bridge_object_to_word
`````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'bridge_object_to_word' sil-operand 'to' sil-type

  %1 = bridge_object_to_word %0 : $Builtin.BridgeObject to $Builtin.Word
  // %1 will be of type $Builtin.Word

Provides the bit pattern of a ``Builtin.BridgeObject`` as an integer.

thin_to_thick_function
``````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'thin_to_thick_function' sil-operand 'to' sil-type

  %1 = thin_to_thick_function %0 : $@convention(thin) T -> U to $T -> U
  // %0 must be of a thin function type $@convention(thin) T -> U
  // The destination type must be the corresponding thick function type
  // %1 will be of type $T -> U

Converts a thin function value, that is, a bare function pointer with no
context information, into a thick function value with ignored context.
Applying the resulting thick function value is equivalent to applying the
original thin value. The ``thin_to_thick_function`` conversion may be
eliminated if the context is proven not to be needed.

thick_to_objc_metatype
``````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'thick_to_objc_metatype' sil-operand 'to' sil-type

  %1 = thick_to_objc_metatype %0 : $@thick T.Type to $@objc_metatype T.Type
  // %0 must be of a thick metatype type $@thick T.Type
  // The destination type must be the corresponding Objective-C metatype type
  // %1 will be of type $@objc_metatype T.Type

Converts a thick metatype to an Objective-C class metatype. ``T`` must
be of class, class protocol, or class protocol composition type.

objc_to_thick_metatype
``````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'objc_to_thick_metatype' sil-operand 'to' sil-type

  %1 = objc_to_thick_metatype %0 : $@objc_metatype T.Type to $@thick T.Type
  // %0 must be of an Objective-C metatype type $@objc_metatype T.Type
  // The destination type must be the corresponding thick metatype type
  // %1 will be of type $@thick T.Type

Converts an Objective-C class metatype to a thick metatype. ``T`` must
be of class, class protocol, or class protocol composition type.

objc_metatype_to_object
```````````````````````

TODO

objc_existential_metatype_to_object
```````````````````````````````````

TODO

Checked Conversions
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Some user-level cast operations can fail and thus require runtime checking.

The `unconditional_checked_cast_addr` and `unconditional_checked_cast`_
instructions performs an unconditional checked cast; it is a runtime failure
if the cast fails. The `checked_cast_addr_br`_ and `checked_cast_br`_
terminator instruction performs a conditional checked cast; it branches to one
of two destinations based on whether the cast succeeds or not.

unconditional_checked_cast
``````````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'unconditional_checked_cast' sil-operand 'to' sil-type

  %1 = unconditional_checked_cast %0 : $A to $B
  %1 = unconditional_checked_cast %0 : $*A to $*B
  // $A and $B must be both objects or both addresses
  // %1 will be of type $B or $*B

Performs a checked scalar conversion, causing a runtime failure if the
conversion fails. Casts that require changing representation or ownership are
unsupported.

unconditional_checked_cast_addr
```````````````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'unconditional_checked_cast_addr'
                       sil-type 'in' sil-operand 'to'
                       sil-type 'in' sil-operand

  unconditional_checked_cast_addr $A in %0 : $*@thick A to $B in %1 : $*@thick B
  // $A and $B must be both addresses
  // %1 will be of type $*B
  // $A is destroyed during the conversion. There is no implicit copy.

Performs a checked indirect conversion, causing a runtime failure if the
conversion fails.

Runtime Failures
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

cond_fail
`````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'cond_fail' sil-operand, string-literal

  cond_fail %0 : $Builtin.Int1, "failure reason"
  // %0 must be of type $Builtin.Int1

This instruction produces a `runtime failure`_ if the operand is one.
Execution proceeds normally if the operand is zero.
The second operand is a static failure message, which is displayed by the
debugger in case the failure is triggered.

Terminators
~~~~~~~~~~~

These instructions terminate a basic block. Every basic block must end
with a terminator. Terminators may only appear as the final instruction of
a basic block.

unreachable
```````````
::

  sil-terminator ::= 'unreachable'

  unreachable

Indicates that control flow must not reach the end of the current basic block.
It is a dataflow error if an unreachable terminator is reachable from the entry
point of a function and is not immediately preceded by an ``apply`` of a
no-return function.

return
``````
::

  sil-terminator ::= 'return' sil-operand

  return %0 : $T
  // $T must be the return type of the current function

Exits the current function and returns control to the calling function. If
the current function was invoked with an ``apply`` instruction, the result
of that function will be the operand of this ``return`` instruction. If
the current function was invoked with a ``try_apply`` instruction, control
resumes at the normal destination, and the value of the basic block argument
will be the operand of this ``return`` instruction.

If the current function is a ``yield_once`` coroutine, there must not be
a path from the entry block to a ``return`` which does not pass through
a ``yield`` instruction. This rule does not apply in the ``raw`` SIL stage.

``return`` does not retain or release its operand or any other values.

A function must not contain more than one ``return`` instruction.

throw
`````
::

  sil-terminator ::= 'throw' sil-operand

  throw %0 : $T
  // $T must be the error result type of the current function

Exits the current function and returns control to the calling
function. The current function must have an error result, and so the
function must have been invoked with a ``try_apply`` instruction.
Control will resume in the error destination of that instruction, and
the basic block argument will be the operand of the ``throw``.

``throw`` does not retain or release its operand or any other values.

A function must not contain more than one ``throw`` instruction.

yield
`````
::

  sil-terminator ::= 'yield' sil-yield-values
                       ',' 'resume' sil-identifier
                       ',' 'unwind' sil-identifier
  sil-yield-values ::= sil-operand
  sil-yield-values ::= '(' (sil-operand (',' sil-operand)*)? ')'

Temporarily suspends the current function and provides the given
values to the calling function. The current function must be a coroutine,
and the yield values must match the yield types of the coroutine.
If the calling function resumes the coroutine normally, control passes to
the ``resume`` destination. If the calling function aborts the coroutine,
control passes to the ``unwind`` destination.

The ``resume`` and ``unwind`` destination blocks must be uniquely
referenced by the ``yield`` instruction.  This prevents them from becoming
critical edges.

In a ``yield_once`` coroutine, there must not be a control flow path leading
from the ``resume`` edge to another ``yield`` instruction in this function.
This rule does not apply in the ``raw`` SIL stage.

There must not be a control flow path leading from the ``unwind`` edge to
a ``return`` instruction, to a ``throw`` instruction, or to any block
reachable from the entry block via a path that does not pass through
an ``unwind`` edge. That is, the blocks reachable from ``unwind`` edges
must jointly form a disjoint subfunction of the coroutine.

unwind
``````
::

  sil-terminator ::= 'unwind'

Exits the current function and returns control to the calling function,
completing an unwind from a ``yield``. The current function must be a
coroutine.

``unwind`` is only permitted in blocks reachable from the ``unwind`` edges
of ``yield`` instructions.

br
``
::

  sil-terminator ::= 'br' sil-identifier
                       '(' (sil-operand (',' sil-operand)*)? ')'

  br label (%0 : $A, %1 : $B, ...)
  // `label` must refer to a basic block label within the current function
  // %0, %1, etc. must be of the types of `label`'s arguments

Unconditionally transfers control from the current basic block to the block
labeled ``label``, binding the given values to the arguments of the destination
basic block.

cond_br
``````````
::

  sil-terminator ::= 'cond_br' sil-operand ','
                       sil-identifier '(' (sil-operand (',' sil-operand)*)? ')' ','
                       sil-identifier '(' (sil-operand (',' sil-operand)*)? ')'

  cond_br %0 : $Builtin.Int1, true_label (%a : $A, %b : $B, ...), \
                                 false_label (%x : $X, %y : $Y, ...)
  // %0 must be of $Builtin.Int1 type
  // `true_label` and `false_label` must refer to block labels within the
  //   current function and must not be identical
  // %a, %b, etc. must be of the types of `true_label`'s arguments
  // %x, %y, etc. must be of the types of `false_label`'s arguments

Conditionally branches to ``true_label`` if ``%0`` is equal to ``1`` or to
``false_label`` if ``%0`` is equal to ``0``, binding the corresponding set of
values to the arguments of the chosen destination block.

switch_value
````````````
::

  sil-terminator ::= 'switch_value' sil-operand
                       (',' sil-switch-value-case)*
                       (',' sil-switch-default)?
  sil-switch-value-case ::= 'case' sil-value ':' sil-identifier
  sil-switch-default ::= 'default' sil-identifier

  switch_value %0 : $Builtin.Int<n>, case %1: label1, \
                                     case %2: label2, \
                                     ...,            \
                                     default labelN

  // %0 must be a value of builtin integer type $Builtin.Int<n>
  // `label1` through `labelN` must refer to block labels within the current
  //   function
  // FIXME: All destination labels currently must take no arguments

Conditionally branches to one of several destination basic blocks based on a
value of builtin integer or function type. If the operand value matches one of the ``case``
values of the instruction, control is transferred to the corresponding basic
block. If there is a ``default`` basic block, control is transferred to it if
the value does not match any of the ``case`` values. It is undefined behavior
if the value does not match any cases and no ``default`` branch is provided.

switch_enum
```````````
::

  sil-terminator ::= 'switch_enum' sil-operand
                       (',' sil-switch-enum-case)*
                       (',' sil-switch-default)?
  sil-switch-enum-case ::= 'case' sil-decl-ref ':' sil-identifier

  switch_enum %0 : $U, case #U.Foo!enumelt: label1, \
                        case #U.Bar!enumelt: label2, \
                        ...,                 \
                        default labelN

  // %0 must be a value of enum type $U
  // #U.Foo, #U.Bar, etc. must be 'case' declarations inside $U
  // `label1` through `labelN` must refer to block labels within the current
  //   function
  // label1 must take either no basic block arguments, or a single argument
  //   of the type of #U.Foo's data
  // label2 must take either no basic block arguments, or a single argument
  //   of the type of #U.Bar's data, etc.
  // labelN must take no basic block arguments

Conditionally branches to one of several destination basic blocks based on the
discriminator in a loadable ``enum`` value. Unlike ``switch_int``,
``switch_enum`` requires coverage of the operand type: If the ``enum`` type
cannot be switched exhaustively in the current function, the ``default`` branch
is required; otherwise, the ``default`` branch is required unless a destination
is assigned to every ``case`` of the ``enum``. The destination basic block for
a ``case`` may take an argument of the corresponding ``enum`` ``case``'s data
type (or of the address type, if the operand is an address). If the branch is
taken, the destination's argument will be bound to the associated data inside
the original enum value. For example::

  enum Foo {
    case Nothing
    case OneInt(Int)
    case TwoInts(Int, Int)
  }

  sil @sum_of_foo : $Foo -> Int {
  entry(%x : $Foo):
    switch_enum %x : $Foo,       \
      case #Foo.Nothing!enumelt: nothing, \
      case #Foo.OneInt!enumelt:  one_int, \
      case #Foo.TwoInts!enumelt: two_ints

  nothing:
    %zero = integer_literal $Int, 0
    return %zero : $Int

  one_int(%y : $Int):
    return %y : $Int

  two_ints(%ab : $(Int, Int)):
    %a = tuple_extract %ab : $(Int, Int), 0
    %b = tuple_extract %ab : $(Int, Int), 1
    %add = function_ref @add : $(Int, Int) -> Int
    %result = apply %add(%a, %b) : $(Int, Int) -> Int
    return %result : $Int
  }

On a path dominated by a destination block of ``switch_enum``, copying or
destroying the basic block argument has equivalent reference counting semantics
to copying or destroying the ``switch_enum`` operand::

    // This retain_value...
    retain_value %e1 : $Enum
    switch_enum %e1, case #Enum.A: a, case #Enum.B: b
  a(%a : $A):
    // ...is balanced by this release_value
    release_value %a
  b(%b : $B):
    // ...and this one
    release_value %b

switch_enum_addr
````````````````
::

  sil-terminator ::= 'switch_enum_addr' sil-operand
                       (',' sil-switch-enum-case)*
                       (',' sil-switch-default)?

  switch_enum_addr %0 : $*U, case #U.Foo!enumelt: label1, \
                                          case #U.Bar!enumelt: label2, \
                                          ...,                 \
                                          default labelN

  // %0 must be the address of an enum type $*U
  // #U.Foo, #U.Bar, etc. must be cases of $U
  // `label1` through `labelN` must refer to block labels within the current
  //   function
  // The destinations must take no basic block arguments

Conditionally branches to one of several destination basic blocks based on
the discriminator in the enum value referenced by the address operand.

Unlike ``switch_int``, ``switch_enum`` requires coverage of the operand type:
If the ``enum`` type cannot be switched exhaustively in the current function,
the ``default`` branch is required; otherwise, the ``default`` branch is
required unless a destination is assigned to every ``case`` of the ``enum``.
Unlike ``switch_enum``, the payload value is not passed to the destination
basic blocks; it must be projected out separately with
`unchecked_take_enum_data_addr`_.

dynamic_method_br
`````````````````
::

  sil-terminator ::= 'dynamic_method_br' sil-operand ',' sil-decl-ref
                       ',' sil-identifier ',' sil-identifier

  dynamic_method_br %0 : $P, #X.method, bb1, bb2
  // %0 must be of protocol type
  // #X.method must be a reference to an @objc method of any class
  // or protocol type

Looks up the implementation of an Objective-C method with the same
selector as the named method for the dynamic type of the value inside
an existential container. The "self" operand of the result function
value is represented using an opaque type, the value for which must be
projected out as a value of type ``Builtin.ObjCPointer``.

If the operand is determined to have the named method, this
instruction branches to ``bb1``, passing it the uncurried function
corresponding to the method found. If the operand does not have the
named method, this instruction branches to ``bb2``.

checked_cast_br
```````````````
::

  sil-terminator ::= 'checked_cast_br' sil-checked-cast-exact?
                      sil-type 'in'
                      sil-operand 'to' sil-type ','
                      sil-identifier ',' sil-identifier
  sil-checked-cast-exact ::= '[' 'exact' ']'

  checked_cast_br A in %0 : $A to $B, bb1, bb2
  checked_cast_br *A in %0 : $*A to $*B, bb1, bb2
  checked_cast_br [exact] A in %0 : $A to $A, bb1, bb2
  // $A and $B must be both object types or both address types
  // bb1 must take a single argument of type $B or $*B
  // bb2 must take no arguments

Performs a checked scalar conversion from ``$A`` to ``$B``. If the conversion
succeeds, control is transferred to ``bb1``, and the result of the cast is
passed into ``bb1`` as an argument. If the conversion fails, control is
transferred to ``bb2``.

An exact cast checks whether the dynamic type is exactly the target
type, not any possible subtype of it.  The source and target types
must be class types.

checked_cast_addr_br
````````````````````
::

  sil-terminator ::= 'checked_cast_addr_br'
                      sil-cast-consumption-kind
                      sil-type 'in' sil-operand 'to'
                      sil-stype 'in' sil-operand ','
                      sil-identifier ',' sil-identifier
  sil-cast-consumption-kind ::= 'take_always'
  sil-cast-consumption-kind ::= 'take_on_success'
  sil-cast-consumption-kind ::= 'copy_on_success'

  checked_cast_addr_br take_always $A in %0 : $*@thick A to $B in %2 : $*@thick B, bb1, bb2
  // $A and $B must be both address types
  // bb1 must take a single argument of type $*B
  // bb2 must take no arguments

Performs a checked indirect conversion from ``$A`` to ``$B``. If the
conversion succeeds, control is transferred to ``bb1``, and the result of the
cast is left in the destination. If the conversion fails, control is
transferred to ``bb2``.

try_apply
`````````
::

  sil-terminator ::= 'try_apply' sil-value
                        sil-apply-substitution-list?
                        '(' (sil-value (',' sil-value)*)? ')'
                        ':' sil-type
    'normal' sil-identifier, 'error' sil-identifier

  try_apply %0(%1, %2, ...) : $(A, B, ...) -> (R, @error E),
    normal bb1, error bb2
  bb1(%3 : R):
  bb2(%4 : E):

  // Note that the type of the callee '%0' is specified *after* the arguments
  // %0 must be of a concrete function type $(A, B, ...) -> (R, @error E)
  // %1, %2, etc. must be of the argument types $A, $B, etc.

Transfers control to the function specified by ``%0``, passing it the
given arguments.  When ``%0`` returns, control resumes in either the
normal destination (if it returns with ``return``) or the error
destination (if it returns with ``throw``).

``%0`` must have a function type with an error result.

The rules on generic substitutions are identical to those of ``apply``.

await_async_continuation
````````````````````````

::

  sil-terminator ::= 'await_async_continuation' sil-value
                        ',' 'resume' sil-identifier
                        (',' 'error' sil-identifier)?

  await_async_continuation %0 : $UnsafeContinuation<T>, resume bb1
  await_async_continuation %0 : $UnsafeThrowingContinuation<T>, resume bb1, error bb2

  bb1(%1 : @owned $T):
  bb2(%2 : @owned $Error):

Suspends execution of an ``@async`` function until the continuation
is resumed. The continuation must be the result of a
``get_async_continuation`` or ``get_async_continuation_addr``
instruction within the same function; see the documentation for
``get_async_continuation`` for discussion of further constraints on the
IR between ``get_async_continuation[_addr]`` and ``await_async_continuation``.
This terminator can only appear inside an ``@async`` function. The
instruction must always have a ``resume`` successor, but must have an
``error`` successor if and only if the operand is an
``UnsafeThrowingContinuation<T>``.

If the operand is the result of a ``get_async_continuation`` instruction,
then the ``resume`` successor block must take an argument whose type is the
maximally-abstracted lowered type of ``T``, matching the type argument of the
``Unsafe[Throwing]Continuation<T>`` operand. The value of the ``resume``
argument is owned by the current function. If the operand is the result of a
``get_async_continuation_addr`` instruction, then the ``resume`` successor
block must *not* take an argument; the resume value will be written to the
memory referenced by the operand to the ``get_async_continuation_addr``
instruction, after which point the value in that memory becomes owned by the
current function. With either variant, if the ``await_async_continuation``
instruction has an ``error`` successor block, the ``error`` block must take a
single ``Error`` argument, and that argument is owned by the enclosing
function. The memory referenced by a ``get_async_continuation_addr``
instruction remains uninitialized when ``await_async_continuation`` resumes on
the ``error`` successor.

It is possible for a continuation to be resumed before
``await_async_continuation``.  In this case, the resume operation returns
immediately to its caller. When the ``await_async_continuation`` instruction
later executes, it then immediately transfers control to
its ``resume`` or ``error`` successor block, using the resume or error value
that the continuation was already resumed with.

Differentiable Programming
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

differentiable_function
```````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'differentiable_function'
                      sil-differentiable-function-parameter-indices
                      sil-value ':' sil-type
                      sil-differentiable-function-derivative-functions-clause?

  sil-differentiable-function-parameter-indices ::=
      '[' 'parameters' [0-9]+ (' ' [0-9]+)* ']'
  sil-differentiable-derivative-functions-clause ::=
      'with_derivative'
      '{' sil-value ':' sil-type ',' sil-value ':' sil-type '}'

  differentiable_function [parameters 0] %0 : $(T) -> T \
    with_derivative {%1 : $(T) -> (T, (T) -> T), %2 : $(T) -> (T, (T) -> T)}

Creates a ``@differentiable`` function from an original function operand and
derivative function operands (optional). There are two derivative function
kinds: a Jacobian-vector products (JVP) function and a vector-Jacobian products
(VJP) function.

``[parameters ...]`` specifies parameter indices that the original function is
differentiable with respect to.

The ``with_derivative`` clause specifies the derivative function operands
associated with the original function.

The differentiation transformation canonicalizes all `differentiable_function`
instructions, generating derivative functions if necessary to fill in derivative
function operands.

In raw SIL, the ``with_derivative`` clause is optional. In canonical SIL, the
``with_derivative`` clause is mandatory.


linear_function
```````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'linear_function'
                      sil-linear-function-parameter-indices
                      sil-value ':' sil-type
                      sil-linear-function-transpose-function-clause?

  sil-linear-function-parameter-indices ::=
      '[' 'parameters' [0-9]+ (' ' [0-9]+)* ']'
  sil-linear-transpose-function-clause ::=
      with_transpose sil-value ':' sil-type

  linear_function [parameters 0] %0 : $(T) -> T with_transpose %1 : $(T) -> T

Bundles a function with its transpose function into a
``@differentiable(_linear)`` function.

``[parameters ...]`` specifies parameter indices that the original function is
linear with respect to.

A ``with_transpose`` clause specifies the transpose function associated
with the original function. When a ``with_transpose`` clause is not specified,
the mandatory differentiation transform  will add a ``with_transpose`` clause to
the instruction.

In raw SIL, the ``with_transpose`` clause is optional. In canonical SIL,
the ``with_transpose`` clause is mandatory.


differentiable_function_extract
```````````````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'differentiable_function_extract'
                      '[' sil-differentiable-function-extractee ']'
                      sil-value ':' sil-type
                      ('as' sil-type)?

  sil-differentiable-function-extractee ::= 'original' | 'jvp' | 'vjp'

  differentiable_function_extract [original] %0 : $@differentiable (T) -> T
  differentiable_function_extract [jvp] %0 : $@differentiable (T) -> T
  differentiable_function_extract [vjp] %0 : $@differentiable (T) -> T
  differentiable_function_extract [jvp] %0 : $@differentiable (T) -> T \
    as $(@in_constant T) -> (T, (T.TangentVector) -> T.TangentVector)

Extracts the original function or a derivative function from the given
``@differentiable`` function. The extractee is one of the following:
``[original]``, ``[jvp]``, or ``[vjp]``.

In lowered SIL, an explicit extractee type may be provided. This is currently
used by the LoadableByAddress transformation, which rewrites function types.


linear_function_extract
```````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'linear_function_extract'
                      '[' sil-linear-function-extractee ']'
                      sil-value ':' sil-type

  sil-linear-function-extractee ::= 'original' | 'transpose'

  linear_function_extract [original] %0 : $@differentiable(_linear) (T) -> T
  linear_function_extract [transpose] %0 : $@differentiable(_linear) (T) -> T

Extracts the original function or a transpose function from the given
``@differentiable(_linear)`` function. The extractee is one of the following:
``[original]`` or ``[transpose]``.


differentiability_witness_function
``````````````````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::=
      'differentiability_witness_function'
      '[' sil-differentiability-witness-function-kind ']'
      '[' differentiability-kind ']'
      '[' 'parameters' sil-differentiability-witness-function-index-list ']'
      '[' 'results' sil-differentiability-witness-function-index-list ']'
      generic-parameter-clause?
      sil-function-name ':' sil-type

  sil-differentiability-witness-function-kind ::= 'jvp' | 'vjp' | 'transpose'
  sil-differentiability-witness-function-index-list ::= [0-9]+ (' ' [0-9]+)*

  differentiability_witness_function [vjp] [reverse] [parameters 0] [results 0] \
    <T where T: Differentiable> @foo : $(T) -> T

Looks up a differentiability witness function (JVP, VJP, or transpose) for
a referenced function via SIL differentiability witnesses.

The differentiability witness function kind identifies the witness function to
look up: ``[jvp]``, ``[vjp]``, or ``[transpose]``.

The remaining components identify the SIL differentiability witness:

- Original function name.
- Differentiability kind.
- Parameter indices.
- Result indices.
- Witness generic parameter clause (optional). When parsing SIL, the parsed
  witness generic parameter clause is combined with the original function's
  generic signature to form the full witness generic signature.

Optimizer Dataflow Marker Instructions
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

mark_must_check
```````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'mark_must_check'
                      '[' sil-optimizer-analysis-marker ']'

  sil-optimizer-analysis-marker ::= 'consumable_and_assignable'
                                ::= 'no_consume_or_assign'

A canary value inserted by a SIL generating frontend to signal to the move
checker to check a specific value.  Valid only in Raw SIL. The relevant checkers
should remove the `mark_must_check`_ instruction after successfully running the
relevant diagnostic. The idea here is that instead of needing to introduce
multiple "flagging" instructions for the optimizer, we can just reuse this one
instruction by varying the kind.

If the sil optimizer analysis marker is ``consumable_and_assignable`` then the move
checker is told to check that the result of this instruction is consumed at most
once. If the marker is ``no_consume_or_assign``, then the move checker will
validate that the result of this instruction is never consumed or assigned over.

No Implicit Copy and No Escape Value Instructions
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

copyable_to_moveonlywrapper
```````````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'copyable_to_moveonlywrapper'

`copyable_to_moveonlywrapper`_ takes in a 'T' and maps it to a move only wrapped
'@moveOnly T'. This is semantically used by a code generator initializing a new
moveOnly binding from a copyable value. It semantically destroys its input
@owned value and returns a brand new independent @owned @moveOnly value. It also
is used to convert a trivial copyable value with type 'Trivial' into an owned
non-trivial value of type '@moveOnly Trivial'. If one thinks of '@moveOnly' as a
monad, this is how one injects a copyable value into the move only space.

moveonlywrapper_to_copyable
```````````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'moveonlywrapper_to_copyable [owned]'
  sil-instruction ::= 'moveonlywrapper_to_copyable [guaranteed]'

`moveonlywrapper_to_copyable`_ takes in a '@moveOnly T' and produces a new 'T'
value. This is a 'forwarding' instruction where at parse time, we only allow for
one to choose it to be [owned] or [guaranteed]. With time, we may eliminate the
need for the guaranteed form in the future.

* `moveonlywrapper_to_copyable [owned]` is used to signal the end of lifetime of
  the '@moveOnly' wrapper. SILGen inserts these when ever a move only value has
  its ownership passed to a situation where a copyable value is needed. Since it
  is consuming, we know that the no implicit copy or no-escape checker will ensure
  that if we need a copy for it, the program will emit a diagnostic.

* `moveonlywrapper_to_copyable [guaranteed]` is used to pass a @moveOnly T value
  as a copyable guaranteed parameter with type 'T' to a function. In the case of
  using no-implicit-copy checking this is always fine since no-implicit-copy is a
  local pattern. This would be an error when performing no escape
  checking. Importantly, this instruction also is where in the case of an
  @moveOnly trivial type, we convert from the non-trivial representation to the
  trivial representation.

copyable_to_moveonlywrapper_addr
````````````````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'copyable_to_moveonlywrapper_addr'

`copyable_to_moveonlywrapper_addr`_ takes in a '*T' and maps it to a move only
wrapped '*@moveOnly T'. This is semantically used by a code generator
initializing a new moveOnly binding from a copyable value. It semantically acts
as an address cast. If one thinks of '@moveOnly' as a monad, this is how one
injects a copyable value into the move only space.

moveonlywrapper_to_copyable_addr
````````````````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'moveonlywrapper_to_copyable_addr'

`moveonlywrapper_to_copyable_addr`_ takes in a '*@moveOnly T' and produces a new
'*T' value. This instruction acts like an address cast that projects out the
underlying T from an @moveOnly T.

NOTE: From the perspective of the address checker, a trivial `load`_ with a
`moveonlywrapper_to_copyable_addr`_ operand is considered to be a use of a
noncopyable type.


Assertion configuration
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

To be able to support disabling assertions at compile time there is a builtin
``assertion_configuration`` function. A call to this function can be replaced at
compile time by a constant or can stay opaque.

All calls to the ``assert_configuration`` function are replaced by the constant
propagation pass to the appropriate constant depending on compile time settings.
Subsequent passes remove dependent unwanted control flow. Using this mechanism
we support conditionally enabling/disabling of code in SIL libraries depending
on the assertion configuration selected when the library is linked into user
code.

There are three assertion configurations: Debug (0), Release (1) and
DisableReplacement (-1).

The optimization flag or a special assert configuration flag determines the
value. Depending on the configuration value assertions in the standard library
will be executed or not.

The standard library uses this builtin to define an assert that can be
disabled at compile time.

::

  func assert(...) {
    if (Int32(Builtin.assert_configuration()) == 0) {
      _fatal_error_message(message, ...)
    }
  }

The ``assert_configuration`` function application is serialized when we build
the standard library (we recognize the ``-parse-stdlib`` option and don't do the
constant replacement but leave the function application to be serialized to
sil).

The compiler flag that influences the value of the ``assert_configuration``
function application is the optimization flag: at ``-Onone`` the application will
be replaced by ``Debug`` at higher optimization levels the instruction will be
replaced by ``Release``. Optionally, the value to use for replacement can be
specified with the ``-assert-config`` flag which overwrites the value selected by
the optimization flag (possible values are ``Debug``, ``Release``,
``DisableReplacement``).

If the call to the ``assert_configuration`` function stays opaque until IRGen,
IRGen will replace the application by the constant representing Debug mode (0).
This happens we can build the standard library .dylib. The generate sil will
retain the function call but the generated .dylib will contain code with
assertions enabled.

Weak linking support
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

has_symbol
```````````````````````````
::

  sil-instruction ::= 'has_symbol' sil-decl-ref

Returns true if each of the underlying symbol addresses associated with the
given declaration are non-null. This can be used to determine whether a
weakly-imported declaration is available at runtime.